Symptoms
Respiratory depression, as a result of central nervous system depression, is the primary symptom requiring intervention in the case of overdose because it may lead to respiratory arrest and death. Preliminary symptoms of overdose may also include somnolence, amblyopia, miosis, hypotension, nausea, vomiting and / or speech disorders.
Treatment
General supportive measures should be instituted, including close monitoring of respiratory and cardiac status of the patient. Symptomatic treatment of respiratory depression, following standard intensive care measures, should be instituted. A patent airway and assisted or controlled ventilation must be assured. The patient should be transferred to an environment within which full resuscitation facilities are available. Use of an opioid antagonist (i.e., naloxone) is recommended, despite the modest effect it may have in reversing the respiratory symptoms of buprenorphine compared with its effects on full agonist opioid agents.
The long duration of action of buprenorphine should be taken into consideration when determining length of treatment needed to reverse the effects of an overdose. Naloxone can be cleared more rapidly than buprenorphine, allowing for a return of previously controlled buprenorphine overdose symptoms.
Hypersensitivity to buprenorphine or any other component of the tablet
Children less than 16 years of age
Severe respiratory insufficiency
Severe hepatic insufficiency
Acute alcoholism or delirium tremens
Breast feeding
None known
Summary of safety profile
The most commonly reported adverse drug reactions were those related to withdrawal symptoms (e.g. insomnia, headache, nausea and hyperhidrosis) and pain.
Tabulated list of adverse reactions
Table 1 summarises:
- adverse reactions reported from pivotal clinical studies. The frequency of possible side effects listed below is defined using the following convention: Very common (>1/10), common (>1/100 to <1/10).
- the most commonly reported adverse drug reactions during post-marketing surveillance. Events occurring in at least 1% of reports by healthcare professionals and considered expected are included. Frequency of events not reported in pivotal studies cannot be estimated and is given as not known.
| Table 1: Adverse effects observed in pivotal clinical studies and / or post marketing surveillance listed by body system | |||
| System Organ Class | Very common (>1/10) | Common (>1/100 to <1/10) | Frequency not known |
| Infections and infestations | Bronchitis Infection Influenza Pharyngitis Rhinitis | ||
| Blood and lymphatic system disorders | Lymphadenopathy | ||
| Metabolism and nutrition disorders | Decreased appetite | ||
| Psychiatric disorders | Insomnia | Agitation Anxiety Depression Hostility Nervousness Paranoia Thinking abnormal | Drug dependence |
| Nervous system disorders | Headache | Dizziness Hypertonia Migraine Paraesthesia Somnolence Syncope Tremor | |
| Eye disorders | Lacrimal disorder Mydriasis | ||
| Cardiac disorders | Palpitations | ||
| Vascular disorders | Vasodilatation | ||
| Respiratory, thoracic and mediastinal disorders | Cough Dyspnoea Yawning | ||
| Gastrointestinal disorders | Nausea | Abdominal pain Constipation Diarrhoea Dry mouth Dyspepsia Gastrointestinal disorder Flatulence Tooth disorder Vomiting | |
| Skin and subcutaneous tissue disorders | Hyperhidrosis | Rash | |
| Musculoskeletal, connective tissue and bone disorders | Arthralgia Back pain Bone pain Muscle spasms Myalgia Neck pain | ||
| Reproductive system and breast disorders | Dysmenorrhoea | ||
| General disorders and administration site conditions | Drug withdrawal syndrome Pain | Asthenia Chest pain Chills Malaise Oedema peripheral Pyrexia | Drug withdrawal syndrome neonatal |
Description of selected adverse reactions
The following is a summary of other post-marketing adverse event reports that are considered serious or otherwise noteworthy:
- In cases of intravenous misuse, local reactions, sometimes septic (abscess, cellulitis), and potentially serious acute hepatitis and other infections such as pneumonia, endocarditis have been reported.
- In patients presenting with marked drug dependence, initial administration of buprenorphine can produce a withdrawal effect similar to that associated with naloxone.
- The most common signs and symptoms of hypersensitivity include rashes, urticaria, and pruritus. Cases of bronchospasm, angioedema, and anaphylactic shock have been reported.
- Transaminase increase, hepatitis, acute hepatitis, cytolytic hepatitis, jaundice, hepatorenal syndrome, hepatic encephalopathy, and hepatic necrosis have occurred.
- Neonatal drug withdrawal syndrome has been reported among newborns of women who have received buprenorphine during pregnancy. The syndrome may be milder than that seen with a full µ-opioid agonist and may be delayed in onset. The nature of the syndrome may vary depending upon the mother's drug use history.
- Hallucination, orthostatic hypotension, urinary retention and vertigo have been reported.
Reporting of suspected adverse reactions
Reporting suspected adverse reactions after authorisation of the medicinal product is important. It allows continued monitoring of the benefit/risk balance of the medicinal product. Healthcare professionals are asked to report any suspected adverse reactions via the Yellow Card Scheme at www.mhra.gov.uk/yellowcard.
Acute toxicity of buprenorphine was determined in the mouse and rat following oral and parenteral administration. The median lethal doses (LD50) in the mouse were 26, 94 and 261 mg/kg for intravenous, intraperitoneal and oral administration, respectively. The LD50 values in a rat were 35, 243 and 600 mg/kg for intravenous, intraperitoneal and oral administration, respectively.
When beagles were dosed continuously subcutaneously for one month, rhesus monkeys orally for one month and rats and baboons intramuscularly for six months, buprenorphine showed remarkably low tissue and biochemical toxicities.
From teratology studies in rats and rabbits, it was concluded that buprenorphine is not embryotoxic or teratogenic, and it does not have any marked effects on weaning potential. There were no adverse effects of fertility of general reproductive function in rats, although at the highest intramuscular dose (5mg/kg/day) the mothers experienced some difficulty in parturition and there was a high neonatal mortality.
Minimal to moderate hyperplasia of the bile duct with associated peribiliary fibrosis occurred in dogs following 52 weeks of oral dosing of 75mg/kg/day.
Substitution treatment for opioid drug dependence, within a framework of medical, social and psychological treatment.
Pharmacodynamic group
Drugs used in opioid dependence ATC-code: N07BC01
Mechanism of action
Buprenorphine is an opioid partial agonist/antagonist which attaches itself to the µ (mu) k (kappa) receptors of the brain. Its activity in opioid maintenance treatment is attributed to its slowly reversible link with the µ receptors which, over a prolonged period, minimises the need of the opioid-dependent patient.
Clinical efficacy and safety
During clinical pharmacologic studies in opiate-dependent subjects, buprenorphine demonstrated a ceiling effect on a number of parameters, including positive mood, “good effect†and respiratory depression.
Absorption
When taken orally, buprenorphine undergoes first-pass hepatic metabolism with N-dealkylation and glucuroconjungation in the small intestine. The use of this medication by oral route is therefore inappropriate.
Peak plasma concentrations are achieved 90 minutes after sublingual administration and the maximal dose - concentration relationship is linear, between 2 mg and 16 mg.
Distribution
The absorption of buprenorphine is followed by a rapid distribution phase and a half - life of 2 to 5 hours.
Biotransformation and elimination
Buprenorphine is oxidatively metabolised by 14-N-dealkylation to N-desalkyl-buprenorphine (also known as norbuprenorphine) via cytochrome P450 CYP3A4 and by glucuroconjungation of the parent molecule and the dealkylated metabolite. Norbuprenorphine is µ (mu) agonist with weak intrinsic activity.
Elimination of buprenorphine is bi- or tri- exponential, with long terminal elimination phase of 20-25 hours, due in part to reabsorption of buprenorphine after intestinal hydrolysis of the conjugated derivative, and in part to the highly lipophilic nature of the molecule.
Buprenorphine is essentially eliminated in the faeces by biliary excretion of the glucuroconjugated metabolites (70%), the rest being eliminated in the urine.
Hepatic Impairment
The effect of hepatic impairment on the pharmacokinetics of buprenorphine and naloxone were evaluated in a postmarketing study.
Table 2 summarizes the results from a clinical trial in which the exposure of buprenorphine was determined after administering a Suboxone 2.0/0.5mg (buprenorphine/naloxone) sublingual tablet in healthy subjects, and in subjects with varied degrees of hepatic impairment.
| Table 2. Effect of hepatic impairment on pharmacokinetic parameters of buprenorphine following buprenorphine/naloxone administration (change relative to healthy subjects) | |||
| PK Parameter | Mild Hepatic Impairment (Child-Pugh Class A) (n=9) | Moderate Hepatic Impairment (Child-Pugh Class B) (n=8) | Severe Hepatic Impairment (Child-Pugh Class C) (n=8) |
| Buprenorphine | |||
| Cmax | 1.2-fold increase | 1.1-fold Increase | 1.7-fold increase |
| AUClast | Similar to control | 1.6-fold increase | 2.8-fold increase |
Overall, buprenorphine plasma exposure increased approximately 3-fold in patients with severely impaired hepatic function.
Nopan sublingual tablets are recommended only for the treatment of opioid drug dependence. It is also recommended that treatment is prescribed by a physician who ensures comprehensive management of the opioid-dependent patient(s).
Misuse, abuse and diversion
Buprenorphine can be misused or abused in a manner similar to other opioids, legal or illicit. Some risks of misuse and abuse include overdose, spread of blood borne viral or localised infections, respiratory depression and hepatic injury. Buprenorphine misuse by someone other than the intended patient poses the additional risk of new drug dependent individuals using buprenorphine as the primary drug of abuse, and may occur if the medicine is distributed for illicit use directly by the intended patient or if the medicine is not safeguarded against theft.
Sub-optimal treatment with buprenorphine may prompt medication misuse by the patient, leading to overdose or treatment dropout. A patient who is under-dosed with buprenorphine may continue responding to uncontrolled withdrawal symptoms by self-medicating with opioids, alcohol or other sedative-hypnotics such as benzodiazepines.
To minimise the risk of misuse, abuse and diversion, physicians should take appropriate precautions when prescribing and dispensing buprenorphine, such as to avoid prescribing multiple refills early in treatment and to conduct patient follow-up visits with clinical monitoring that is appropriate to the patient's level of stability.
Respiratory depression
A number of cases of death due to respiratory depression have been reported, particularly when buprenorphine was used in combination with benzodiazepines or when buprenorphine was not used according to prescribing information. Deaths have also been reported in association with concomitant administration of buprenorphine and other depressants such as alcohol or other opioids. If buprenorphine is administered to some non-opioid dependent individuals who are not tolerant to the effects of opioids, potentially fatal respiratory depression may occur.
Nopan should be used with care in patients with respiratory insufficiency (e.g. chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, cor pulmonale, decreased respiratory reserve, hypoxia, hypercapnia, pre-existing respiratory depression or kyphoscoliosis).
Buprenorphine may cause severe, possibly fatal, respiratory depression in children and non-dependent persons who accidentally or deliberately ingest it. Protect children and non-dependent persons against exposure.
CNS depression
Buprenorphine may cause drowsiness particularly when used with alcohol or central nervous system depressants (such as benzodiazepines, tranquillisers, sedatives or hypnotics).
Dependence
Buprenorphine is a partial agonist at the mu-opiate receptor and chronic administration produces dependence of the opioid type. Studies in animals, as well as clinical experience, have demonstrated that buprenorphine may produce dependence, but at a lower level than a full agonist.
Abrupt discontinuation of treatment is not recommended as it may result in a withdrawal syndrome that may be delayed in onset.
Hepatitis and hepatic events
Cases of acute hepatic injury have been reported in opioid-dependent patients both in clinical trials and in post-marketing adverse event reports. The spectrum of abnormalities ranges from transient asymptomatic elevations in hepatic transaminases to case reports of cytolytic hepatitis, hepatic failure, hepatic necrosis, hepatorenal syndrome, hepatic encephalopathy and death. In many cases, the presence of pre-existing liver enzyme abnormalities, genetic disease, infection with hepatitis B or hepatitis C virus, alcohol abuse, anorexia, concomitant use of other potentially hepatotoxic drugs and ongoing injecting drug use may have a causative or contributory role. These underlying factors must be taken into consideration before prescribing Nopan and during treatment. When a hepatic event is suspected further biological and etiological evaluation is required. Depending on the findings, Nopan may be discontinued cautiously so as to prevent withdrawal symptoms and to prevent a return to illicit drug use. If treatment is continued, hepatic function should be monitored closely.
All patients should have liver function tests performed at regular intervals.
Precipitation of opioid withdrawal syndrome
When initiating treatment with Nopan, it is important to be aware of the partial agonist profile of buprenorphine. Sublingually administered buprenorphine can precipitate withdrawal symptoms in opioid-dependent patients if administered before the agonist effects resulting from recent opioid use or misuse have subsided. To avoid precipitated withdrawal, induction should be undertaken when objective signs and symptoms of moderate withdrawal are evident.
Hepatic impairment
The effects of hepatic impairment on the pharmacokinetics of buprenorphine were evaluated in a post-marketing study. Buprenorphine is extensively metabolized in the liver, plasma levels were found to be higher for buprenorphine in patients with moderate and severe hepatic impairment. Patients should be monitored for signs and symptoms of precipitated opioid withdrawal, toxicity or overdose caused by increased levels of buprenorphine. Nopan sublingual tablets should be used with caution in patients with moderate hepatic impairment. In patients with severe hepatic insufficiency the use of buprenorphine is contraindicated.
Renal impairment
Renal elimination plays a relatively small role (approximately 30%) in the overall clearance of buprenorphine; therefore, no dose modification based on renal function is generally required. Metabolites of buprenorphine accumulate in patients with renal failure. Caution is recommended dosing patients with severe renal impairment (creatinine clearance < 30 ml/min).
Patients with lactose intolerance
This product contains lactose. Patients with rare hereditary problems of galactose intolerance, the Lapp lactase deficiency or glucose-galactose malabsorption should not take this medicine.
Use in adolescents
Due to lack of data in adolescents (age 16 - 18), patients in this age group should be more closely monitored during treatment.
General warnings related to the administration of opioids
Opioids may cause orthostatic hypotension in ambulatory patients.
Opioids may elevate cerebrospinal fluid pressure, which may cause seizures, so opioids should be used with caution in patients with head injury, intracranial lesions, other circumstances where cerebrospinal pressure may be increased, or history of seizure.
Opioids should be used with caution in patients with hypotension, prostatic hypertrophy or urethral stenosis.
Opioid-induced miosis, changes in the level of consciousness or changes in the perception of pain as a symptom of disease may interfere with patient evaluation or obscure the diagnosis or clinical course of concomitant disease.
Opioids should be used with caution in patients with myxoedema, hypothyroidism, or adrenal cortical insufficiency (e.g. Addison's disease).
Opioids have been shown to increase intracholedochal pressure, and should be used with caution in patients with dysfunction of the biliary tract.
Opioids should be administered with caution to elderly or debilitated patients.
Buprenorphine has moderate influence on the ability to use machines when administered to opioid dependent patients. Nopan may cause drowsiness, dizziness or impaired thinking, especially during treatment induction and dose adjustment. If taken together with alcohol or central nervous system depressants, the effect is likely to be more pronounced. Patients should be cautioned about operating hazardous machinery in case buprenorphine may affect their ability to engage in such activities.
This medicine can impair cognitive function and can affect a patient's ability to drive safely.
This class of medicine is in the list of drugs included in regulations under 5a of the Road Traffic Act 1988. When prescribing this medicine, patients should be told:
- The medicine is likely to affect your ability to drive
- Do not drive until you know how the medicine affects you
- It is an offence to drive while under the influence of this medicine
- However, you would not be committing an offence (called 'statutory defence') if:
o The medicine has been prescribed to treat a medical or dental problem and
o You have taken it according to the instructions given by the prescriber and in the information provided with the medicine and
o It was not affecting your ability to drive safely
Posology
Treatment with Nopan sublingual tablets is intended for use in adults and children aged 16 years or over who have agreed to be treated for opioid dependence.
Precautions to be taken before dosing
Prior to treatment induction, physicians should be aware of the partial agonist profile of buprenorphine to the opiate receptors, which may precipitate a withdrawal syndrome in opioid-dependent patients and consideration should be given to the types of opioid dependence (i.e. long- or short-acting opioid), the time since last opioid use and the degree of opioid dependence. To avoid precipitating withdrawal, induction with Nopan should be undertaken when objective and clear signs of withdrawal are evident e.g. a score higher than 12 on the Clinical Opioid Withdrawal Scale (COWS).
- For patients dependent on heroin or short-acting opioids: the first dose of buprenorphine should be started when objective signs of withdrawal appear, but not less than 6 hours after the patient last used opioids.
- For patients receiving methadone: before beginning Nopan therapy, the dose of methadone should be reduced to a maximum of 30mg/day. Nopan may precipitate symptoms of withdrawal in patients dependent on methadone. The first dose of buprenorphine should be started only when objective signs of withdrawal appear and generally not less than 24 hours after the patient last used methadone because of the long half-life of methadone.
Baseline liver function tests and documentation of viral hepatitis status is recommended prior to commencing therapy.
Induction:
The initial dose is from 0.8mg to 4mg, administered as a single daily dose.
Dosage adjustment and maintenance:
The dose of Nopan should be increased progressively according to the clinical effect of the individual patient and should not exceed a maximum single daily dose of 32mg. The dosage is titrated according to reassessment of the clinical and psychological status of the patient.
Dosage reduction and termination of treatment:
After a satisfactory period of stabilisation has been achieved, the dosage may be reduced gradually to a lower maintenance dose; when deemed appropriate, treatment may be discontinued in some patients. The availability of the sublingual tablet in doses of 0.4mg, 2mg and 8mg, respectively, allows for a downward titration of dosage. Patients should be monitored following termination of buprenorphine treatment because of the potential for relapse.
Special populations
Elderly
The safety and efficacy of buprenorphine in elderly patients over 65 years of age has not been established.
Hepatic impairment
Patients who are positive for viral hepatitis, on concomitant medicinal products and / or have existing liver dysfunction are at risk of greater liver injury. Patients should be monitored for signs and symptoms of toxicity or overdose caused by increased levels of buprenorphine. Buprenorphine should be used with caution in patients with hepatic insufficiency. Buprenorphine is contraindicated in patients with severe hepatic insufficiency.
Renal impairment
Modification of the buprenorphine dose is not generally required for patients with renal impairment. Caution is recommended when dosing patients with severe renal impairment, which may require dose adjustment (creatinine clearance < 30 ml/min).
Paediatric population
Nopan is contraindicated in children under the age of 16.
Method of administration
Administration is sublingual. Physicians must advise patients that the sublingual route is the only effective and safe route of administration for this drug. The tablet should be kept under the tongue until dissolved, which usually occurs within 5 to 10 minutes.
Not applicable
