In clinical trials with Vero-Ribavirin used in combination with peginterferon alfa-2b or interferon alfa-2b, the maximum overdose reported was a total dose of 10 g of Vero-Ribavirin (50 x 200 mg capsules) and 39 MIU of interferon alfa-2b (13 subcutaneous injections of 3 MIU each) taken in one day by a patient in an attempt at suicide. The patient was observed for two days in the emergency room, during which time no adverse reaction from the overdose was noted.
No overdosage with Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) by aerosol administration has been reported in humans. The LDM in mice is 2 g orally and is associated with hypoactivity and gastrointestinal symptoms (estimated human equivalent dose of 0.17 g/kg, based on body surface area conversion). The mean plasma half-life after administration of aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) for pediatric patients is 9.5 hours. Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) is concentrated and persists in red blood cells for the life of the erythrocyte (see Pharmacokinetics).
-
- Pregnacy. In females of childbearing potential, Vero-Ribavirin must not be initiated until a report of a negative pregnancy test has been obtained immediately prior to initiation of therapy.
- Breast-feeding.
- History of severe pre-existing cardiac disease, including unstable or uncontrolled cardiac disease, in the previous six months.
- Haemoglobinopathies (e.g., thalassemia, sickle-cell anaemia).
Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) is contraindicated in individuals who have shown Hypersensitivity to the drug or its components, and in women who are or may become pregnant during exposure to the drug. Ribavirin has demonstrated significant teratogenic and/or embryocidal potential in all animal species in which adequate studies have been conducted (rodents and rabbits). Therefore, although clinical studies have not been performed, it should be assumed that Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) may cause fetal harm in humans. Studies in which the drug has been administered systemically demonstrate that ribavirin is concentrated in the red blood cells and persists for the life of the erythrocyte.
Not applicable
Summary of the safety profile
The salient safety issue of Vero-Ribavirin is haemolytic anaemia occurring within the first weeks of therapy. The haemolytic anaemia associated with Vero-Ribavirin therapy may result in deterioration of cardiac function and/or worsening of pre-existing cardiac disease. An increase in uric acid and indirect bilirubin values associated with haemolysis were also observed in some patients.
The adverse reactions listed in this section are primarily derived from clinical trials and/or as adverse drug reactions from spontaneous reports when Vero-Ribavirin was used in combination with interferon alfa-2b or peginterferon alfa-2b.
Please refer to the corresponding SmPC of medicinal products that are used in combination with Vero-Ribavirin for additional undesirable effects reported with these products.
Adults
Bitherapy with peginterferon alfa-2b or interferon alfa-2b
The safety of Vero-Ribavirin capsules is evaluated from data from four clinical trials in patients with no previous exposure to interferon (interferon-naïve patients): two trials studied Vero-Ribavirin in combination with interferon alfa-2b, two trials studied Vero-Ribavirin in combination with peginterferon alfa-2b.
Patients who are treated with interferon alfa-2b and Vero-Ribavirin after previous relapse from interferon therapy or who are treated for a shorter period are likely to have an improved safety profile than that described below.
Tabulated list of adverse reactions for adults
The adverse reactions listed in Table 5 are based on experience from clinical trials in adult naïve patients treated for 1 year and post-marketing use. A certain number of adverse reactions, generally attributed to interferon therapy but that have been reported in the context of hepatitis C therapy (in combination with Vero-Ribavirin) are also listed for reference in Table 5. Also, refer to peginterferon alfa-2b and interferon alfa-2b SmPCs for adverse reactions that may be attributable to interferon monotherapy. Within the organ system classes, adverse reactions are listed under headings of frequency using the following categories: very common (>1/10); common (>1/100 to <1/10); uncommon (>1/1,000 to <1/100); rare (> 1/10,000 to <1/1,000); very rare (<1/10,000); not known. Within each frequency grouping, undesirable effects are presented in order of decreasing seriousness.
| Table 5 Adverse reactions reported during clinical trials or following the marketing use of Vero-Ribavirin with pegylated interferon alfa-2b or interferon alfa-2b | |
| System Organ Class | Adverse Reactions |
| Infections and infestations | |
| Very common: | Viral infection, pharyngitis |
| Common: | Bacterial infection (including sepsis), fungal infection, influenza, respiratory tract infection, bronchitis, herpes simplex, sinusitis, otitis media, rhinitis, urinary tract infection |
| Uncommon | Lower respiratory tract infection |
| Rare: | Pneumonia* |
| Neoplasms benign, malignant and unspecified (including cysts and polyps) | |
| Common: | Neoplasm unspecified |
| Blood and lymphatic system disorders | |
| Very common: | Anaemia, neutropenia |
| Common: | Haemolitic anaemia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, lymphadenopathy, lymphopenia |
| Very rare: | Aplastic anaemia* |
| Not known: | Pure red cell aplasia, idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura, thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura |
| Immune system disorders | |
| Uncommon: | Drug hypersensitivity |
| Rare: | Sarcoidosis*, rheumatoid arthritis (new or aggravated) |
| Not known: | Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome, systemic lupus erythematosus, vasculitis, acute hypersensitivity reactions including urticaria, angioedema, bronchoconstriction, anaphylaxis |
| Endocrine disorders | |
| Common: | Hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism |
| Metabolism and nutrition disorders | |
| Very common: | Anorexia |
| Common: | Hyperglycaemia, hyperuricaemia, hypocalcaemia, dehydration, increased appetite |
| Uncommon: | Diabetes mellitus, hypertriglyceridemia* |
| Psychiatric disorders | |
| Very common: | Depression, insomnia, anxiety, emotional lability |
| Common: | Suicidal ideation, psychosis, aggressive behaviour, confusion, agitation, anger, mood altered, abnormal behaviour, nervousness, sleep disorder, decreased libido apathy, abnormal dreams, crying |
| Uncommon: | Suicide attempts, panic attack, hallucination |
| Rare: | Bipolar disorder* |
| Very rare: | Suicide* |
| Not known: | Homicidal ideation*, mania*, mental status change |
| Nervous system disorders | |
| Very common: | Headache, dizziness, dry mouth, concentration impaired |
| Common: | Amnesia, memory impairment, syncope, migraine, ataxia, paraesthaesia, dysphonia, taste loss, hypoaesthesia, hyperaesthesia, hypertonia, somnolence, disturbance in attention, tremor, dysgeusia |
| Uncommon: | Neuropathy, peripheral neuropathy |
| Rare: | Seizure (convulsion)* |
| Very rare: | Cerebrovascular haemorrhage*, cerebrovascular ischaemia*, encephalopathy*, polyneuropathy* |
| Not known: | Facial palsy, mononeuropathies |
| Eye disorders | |
| Common: | Visual disturbance, blurred vision, conjunctivitis, eye irritation, eye pain, abnormal vision, lacrimal gland disorder, dry eye |
| Rare: | Retinal haemorrhages*, retinopathies (including macular oedema)*, retinal artery occlusion*, retinal vein occlusion*, optic neuritis*, papilloedema*, loss of visual acuity or visual field*, retinal exudates |
| Ear and labyrinth disorders | |
| Common: | Vertigo, hearing impairment/loss, tinnitus, ear pain |
| Cardiac disorders | |
| Common: | Palpitation, tachycardia |
| Uncommon: | Myocardial infarction |
| Rare: | Cardiomyopathy*, arrhythmia* |
| Very rare: | Cardiac ischaemia* |
| Not known: | Pericardial effusion*, pericarditis* |
| Vascular disorders | |
| Common: | Hypotension, hypertension, flushing |
| Rare: | Vasculitis |
| Very rare: | Peripheral ischaemia* |
| Respiratory, thoracic and mediastinal disorders | |
| Very common: | Dyspnoea, coughing |
| Common: | Epistaxis, respiratory disorder, respiratory tract congestion, sinus congestion, nasal congestion, rhinorrhea, increased upper airway secretion, pharyngolaryngeal pain, nonproductive cough |
| Very rare: | Pulmonary infiltrates*, pneumonitis*, interstitial pneumonitis* |
| Gastro-intestinal disorders | |
| Very common: | Diarrhoea, vomiting, nausea, abdominal pain |
| Common: | Ulcerative stomatitis, stomatitis, mouth ulceration, colitis, upper right quadrant pain, dyspepsia, gastroesophogeal reflux*, glossitis, cheilitis, abdominal distension, gingival bleeding, gingivitis, loose stools, tooth disorder, constipation, flatulence |
| Uncommon: | Pancreatitis, oral pain |
| Rare: | Ischaemic colitis |
| Very rare: | Ulcerative colitis * |
| Not Known: | Periodontal disorder, dental disorder, tongue pigmentation |
| Hepatobiliary disorders | |
| Common: | Hepatomegaly, jaundice, hyperbilirubinemia* |
| Very rare: | Hepatotoxicity (including fatalities)* |
| Skin and subcutaneous tissue disorders | |
| Very common: | Alopecia, pruritus, skin dry, rash Psoriasis, aggravated psoriasis, eczema, photosensitivity reaction, maculopapular rash, erythematous rash, night sweats, hyperhidrosis, dermatitis, acne, furuncule, erythema, urticaria, skin disorder, bruise, sweating increased, abnormal hair texture, nail disorder* |
| Rare: | Cutaneous sarcoidosis |
| Very rare: | Stevens Johnson syndrome*, toxic epidermal necrolysis*, erythema multiforme* |
| Musculoskeletal and connective tissue disorders | |
| Very common: | Arthralgia, myalgia, musculoskeletal pain |
| Common: | Arthritis, back pain, muscle spasms, pain in extremity |
| Uncommon: | Bone pain, muscle weakness |
| Rare: | Rhabdomyolysis*, myositis* |
| Renal and urinary disorders | |
| Common: | Micturition frequency, polyuria, urine abnormally |
| Rare: | Renal failure renal insufficiency* |
| Very rare: | Nephrotic syndrome* |
| Reproductive system and breast disorders | |
| Common: | Female : amenorrhea, menorrhagia, menstrual disorder, dysmenorrhea, breast pain, ovarian disorder, vaginal disorder. Male: impotence, prostatitis, erectile dysfunction, Sexual dysfunction (not specified)* |
| General disorders and administration site conditions | |
| Very common: | Fatigue, rigors, pyrexia, influenza like illness, asthenia, irritability |
| Common: | Chest pain, chest discomfort, peripheral oedema, malaise, feeling abnormal, thirst |
| Uncommon | Face oedema |
| Investigations | |
| Very common: | Weight decrease |
| Common: | Cardiac murmur |
* Since Vero-Ribavirin is always prescribed with an alpha interferon product, and the listed adverse drug reactions included reflecting post-marketing experience do not allow precise quantification of frequency, the frequency reported above is from clinical trials using Vero-Ribavirin in combination with interferon alfa-2b (pegylated or non-pegylated).
Description of selected adverse reactions
A reduction in haemoglobin concentrations by > 4 g/dl was observed in 30 % of patients treated with Vero-Ribavirin and peginterferon alfa-2b and 37 % of patients treated with Vero-Ribavirin and interferon alfa-2b. Haemoglobin levels dropped below 10 g/dl in up to 14 % of adult patients and 7 % of children and adolescents treated with Vero-Ribavirin in combination with either peginterferon alfa-2b or interferon alfa-2b.
Most cases of anaemia, neutropenia, and thrombocytopenia were mild (WHO grades 1 or 2). There were some cases of more severe neutropenia in patients treated with Vero-Ribavirin capsules in combination with peginterferon alfa-2b (WHO grade 3: 39 of 186 [21 %]; and WHO grade 4: 13 of 186 [7 %]); WHO grade 3 leukopenia was also reported in 7 % of this treatment group.
An increase in uric acid and indirect bilirubin values associated with haemolysis was observed in some patients treated with Vero-Ribavirin used in combination with peginterferon alfa-2b or interferon alfa-2b in clinical trials, but values returned to baseline levels by four weeks after the end of therapy. Among those patients with elevated uric acid levels, very few patients treated with the combination developed clinical gout, none of which required treatment modification or discontinuation from the clinical trials.
HCV/HIV co-infected patients:
For HCV/HIV co-infected patients receiving Vero-Ribavirin in combination with peginterferon alfa-2b, other adverse reactions (that were not reported in mono-infected patients) which have been reported in the studies with a frequency > 5 % were: oral candidiasis (14 %), lipodystrophy acquired (13 %), CD4 lymphocytes decreased (8 %), appetite decreased (8 %), gamma-glutamyltransferase increased (9 %), back pain (5 %), blood amylase increased (6 %), blood lactic acid increased (5 %), cytolytic hepatitis (6 %), lipase increased (6 %) and pain in limb (6 %).
Mitochondrial toxicity
Mitochondrial toxicity and lactic acidosis have been reported in HIV-positive patients receiving NRTI regimen and associated-Vero-Ribavirin for co-HCV infection.
Laboratory values for HCV/HIV co-infected patients
Although haematological toxicities of neutropenia, thrombocytopenia and anaemia occurred more frequently in HCV/HIV co-infected patients, the majority could be managed by dose modification and rarely required premature discontinuation of treatment. Haematological abnormalities were more frequently reported in patients receiving Vero-Ribavirin in combination with peginterferon alfa-2b when compared to patients receiving Vero-Ribavirin in combination with interferon alfa-2b. In Study 1 , decrease in absolute neutrophil count levels below 500 cells/mm3 was observed in 4 % (8/194) of patients and decrease in platelets below 50,000/mm3 was observed in 4 % (8/194) of patients receiving Vero-Ribavirin capsules in combination with peginterferon alfa-2b. Anaemia (haemoglobin < 9.4 g/dl) was reported in 12 % (23/194) of patients treated with Vero-Ribavirin in combination with peginterferon alfa-2b.
CD4 lymphocytes decrease
Treatment with Vero-Ribavirin in combination with peginterferon alfa-2b was associated with decreases in absolute CD4+ cell counts within the first 4 weeks without a reduction in CD4+ cell percentage. The decrease in CD4+ cell counts was reversible upon dose reduction or cessation of therapy. The use of Vero-Ribavirin in combination with peginterferon alfa-2b had no observable negative impact on the control of HIV viraemia during therapy or follow-up. Limited safety data (N = 25) are available in co-infected patients with CD4+ cell counts < 200/µl.
Please refer to the corresponding SmPC of the antiretroviral medicinal products that are to be taken concurrently with HCV therapy for awareness and management of toxicities specific for each product and the potential for overlapping toxicities with Vero-Ribavirin in combination withother medicinal products.
Paediatric population
In combination with peginterferon alfa-2b
In a clinical trial with 107 children and adolescent patients (3 to 17 years of age) treated with combination therapy of peginterferon alfa-2b and Vero-Ribavirin, dose modifications were required in 25 % of patients, most commonly for anaemia, neutropenia and weight loss. In general, the adverse reactions profile in children and adolescents was similar to that observed in adults, although there is a paediatric-specific concern regarding growth inhibition. During combination therapy for up to 48 weeks with pegylated interferon alfa-2b and Vero-Ribavirin, growth inhibition was observed that resulted in reduced height in some patients. Weight loss and growth inhibition were very common during the treatment (at the end of treatment, mean decrease from baseline in weight and in height percentiles were of 15 percentiles and 8 percentiles, respectively) and growth velocity was inhibited (< 3rd percentile in 70 % of the patients).
At the end of 24 weeks post-treatment follow-up, mean decrease from baseline in weight and height percentiles were still 3 percentiles and 7 percentiles, respectively, and 20% of the children continued to have inhibited growth (growth velocity < 3rd percentile). Ninety-four of 107 children enrolled in the 5 year long-term follow-up trial. The effects on growth were less in those children treated for 24 weeks than those treated for 48 weeks. From pre-treatment to end of long-term follow-up among children treated for 24 or 48 weeks, height-for-age percentiles decreased 1.3 and 9.0 percentiles, respectively. Twenty-four percent of children (11/46) treated for 24 weeks and 40 % of children (19/48) treated for 48 weeks had a > 15 percentile height-for-age decrease from pre-treatment to the end of 5 year long-term follow-up compared to pre-treatment baseline percentiles. Eleven percent of children (5/46) treated for 24 weeks and 13 % of children (6/48) treated for 48 weeks were observed to have a decrease from pre-treatment baseline > 30 height-for-age percentiles to the end of the 5 year long-term follow-up. For weight, pre-treatment to end of long-term follow-up, weightfor- age percentiles decreased 1.3 and 5.5 percentiles among children treated for 24 weeks or 48 weeks, respectively.
For BMI, pre-treatment to end of long-term follow-up, BMI-for-age percentiles decreased 1.8 and 7.5 percentiles among children treated for 24 weeks or 48 weeks, respectively. Decrease in mean height percentile at year 1 of long term followup was most prominent in prepubertal age children. The decline of height, weight and BMI Z scores observed during the treatment phase in comparison to a normative population did not fully recover at the end of long-term follow-up period for children treated with 48 weeks of therapy.
In the treatment phase of this study, the most prevalent adverse reactions in all subjects were pyrexia (80 %), headache (62 %), neutropenia (33 %), fatigue (30 %), anorexia (29 %) and injection-site erythema (29 %). Only 1 subject discontinued therapy as the result of an adverse reaction (thrombocytopenia). The majority of adverse reactions reported in the study were mild or moderate in severity. Severe adverse reactions were reported in 7 % (8/107) of all subjects and included injection site pain (1 %), pain in extremity (1 %), headache (1 %), neutropenia (1 %), and pyrexia (4 %). Important treatment-emergent adverse reactions that occurred in this patient population were nervousness (8 %), aggression (3 %), anger (2 %), depression/depressed mood (4 %) and hypothyroidism (3 %) and 5 subjects received levothyroxine treatment for hypothyroidism/elevated TSH.
In combination with interferon alfa-2b
In clinical trials of 118 children and adolescents 3 to 16 years of age treated with combination therapy of interferon alfa-2b and Vero-Ribavirin, 6 % discontinued therapy due to adverse reactions. In general, the adverse reaction profile in the limited children and adolescent population studied was similar to that observed in adults, although there is a paediatric-specific concern regarding growth inhibition, as decrease in height percentile (mean percentile decrease of 9 percentile) and weight percentile (mean percentile decrease of 13 percentile) were observed during treatment. Within the 5 years follow-up post-treatment period, the children had a mean height of 44th percentile, which was below the median of the normative population and less than their mean baseline height (48th percentile). Twenty (21 %) of 97 children had a > 15 percentile decrease in height percentile, of whom 10 of the 20 children had a > 30 percentile decrease in their height percentile from the start of treatment to the end of long-term follow-up (up to 5 years). Final adult height was available for 14 of those children and demonstrated that 12 continued to show height deficits > 15 percentiles, 10 to 12 years after the end of treatment. During combination therapy for up to 48 weeks with interferon alfa-2b and Vero-Ribavirin, growth inhibition is observed that resulted in reduced final adult height in some patients. In particular, decrease in mean height percentile from baseline to the end of the long-term follow-up was most prominent in prepubertal age children.
Furthermore, suicidal ideation or attempts were reported more frequently compared to adult patients (2.4 % vs. 1 %) during treatment and during the 6 month follow-up after treatment. As in adult patients, children and adolescents also experienced other psychiatric adverse reactions (e.g., depression, emotional lability, and somnolence). In addition, injection site disorders, pyrexia, anorexia, vomiting and emotional lability occurred more frequently in children and adolescents compared to adult patients. Dose modifications were required in 30 % of patients, most commonly for anaemia and neutropenia.
Tabulated list of adverse reactions in paediatric population
Reported adverse reactions listed in Table 6 are based on experience from the two multicentre children and adolescents clinical trials using Vero-Ribavirin with interferon alfa-2b or peginterferon alfa-2b. Within the organ system classes, adverse reactions are listed under headings of frequency using the following categories: very common (> 1/10); common (> 1/100 to < 1/10), and uncommon (> 1/1,000 to < 1/100). Within each frequency grouping, undesirable effects are presented in order of decreasing seriousness.
| Table 6 Adverse reactions very commonly, commonly and uncommonly reported during clinical trials in children and adolescents with Vero-Ribavirin in combination with interferon alfa-2b or peginterferon alfa-2b | |
| System Organ Class | Adverse Reactions |
| Infections and infestations | |
| Very common: | Viral infection, pharyngitis |
| Common: | Fungal infection, bacterial infection, pulmonary infection, nasopharyngitis, pharyngitis streptococcal, otitis media, sinusitis, tooth abscess, influenza, oral herpes, herpes simplex, urinary tract infection, vaginitis, gastroenteritis |
| Uncommon | Pneumonia, ascariasis, enterobiasis, herpes zoster, cellulitis |
| Neoplasms benign, malignant and unspecified (including cysts and polyps) | |
| Common: | Neoplasm unspecified |
| Blood and lymphatic system disorders | |
| Very common: | Anaemia, neutropenia |
| Common: | Thrombocytopenia, lymphadenopathy |
| Endocrine disorders | |
| Very common: | Hypothyroidism |
| Common: | Hyperthyroidism, virilism |
| Metabolism and nutrition disorders | |
| Very common: | Anorexia, increased appetite, decreased appetite |
| Common: | Hypertriglyceridemia, hyperuricemia |
| Psychiatric disorders | |
| Very common: | Depression, insomnia, emotional lability |
| Common: | Suicidal ideation, aggressiion, confusion, affect liability, behaviour disorder, agitation, somnambulism, anxiety, mood altered, restlessness, nervousness, sleep disorder, abnormal dreaming, apathy |
| Uncommon: | Abnormal behaviour, depressed mood, emotional disorder, fear, nightmare |
| Nervous system disorders | |
| Very common: | Headache, dizziness |
| Common: | Hyperkinesia, tremor, dysphonia, paresthaesia, hypoaesthesia, hyperaesthesia, concentration impaired, somnolence, disturbance in attention, poor quality of sleep |
| Uncommon: | Neuralgia, lethargy, psychomotor hyperactivity |
| Eye disorders | |
| Common: | Conjunctivitis, eye pain, abnormal vision, lacrimal gland disorder |
| Uncommon: | Conjunctival haemorrhage, eye pruritus, keratitis, vision blurred, photophobia |
| Ear and labyrinth disorders | |
| Common: | Vertigo |
| Cardiac disorders | |
| Common: | Tachycardia, palpitations |
| Vascular disorders | |
| Common: | Pallor, flushing |
| Uncommon: | Hypotension |
| Respiratory, thoracic and mediastinal disorders | |
| Common: | Dyspnoea, tachypnea, epistaxis, coughing, nasal congestion, nasal irritation, rhinorrhoea, sneezing, pharyngolaryngeal pain |
| Uncommon: | Wheezing, nasal discomfort |
| Gastro-intestinal disorders | |
| Very common: | Abdominal pain, abdominal pain upper, vomiting, diarrhoea, nausea |
The description of adverse reactions is based on events from clinical studies (approximately 200 patients) conducted prior to 1986, and the controlled trial of aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) conducted in 1989-1990. Additional data from spontaneous post-marketing reports of adverse events in individual patients have been available since 1986. DeathsDeaths during or shortly after treatment with aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) have been reported in 20 cases of patients treated with Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) (12 of these patients were being treated for RSV infections). Several cases have been characterized as "possibly related" to Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) by the treating physician; these were in infants who experienced worsening respiratory status related to bronchospasm while being treated with the drug. Several other cases have been attributed to mechanical ventilator malfunction in which Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) precipitation within the ventilator apparatus led to excessively high pulmonary pressures and diminished oxygenation. In these cases the monitoring procedures described in the current package insert were not employed (see Description of Studies, WARNINGS, and DOSAGE AND ADMINISTRATION). Pulmonary and CardiovascularPulmonary function significantly deteriorated during aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) treatment in six of six adults with chronic obstructive lung disease and in four of six asthmatic adults. Dyspnea and chest soreness were also reported in the latter group. Minor abnormalities in pulmonary function were also seen in healthy adult volunteers. In the original study population of approximately 200 infants who received aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) , several serious adverse events occurred in severely ill infants with life-threatening underlying diseases, many of whom required assisted ventilation. The role of Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) in these events is indeterminate. Since the drug's approval in 1986, additional reports of similar serious, though non-fatal, events have been filed infrequently. Events associated with aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) use have included the following: Pulmonary: Worsening of respiratory status, bronchospasm, pulmonary edema, hypoventilation, cyanosis, dyspnea, bacterial pneumonia, pneumothorax, apnea, atelectasis and ventilator dependence. Cardiovascular: Cardiac arrest, hypotension, bradycardia and digitalis toxicity. Bigeminy, bradycardia and tachycardia have been described in patients with underlying congenital heart disease. Some subjects requiring assisted ventilation experienced serious difficulties, due to inadequate ventilation and gas exchange. Precipitation of drug within the ventilatory apparatus, including the endotracheal tube, has resulted in increased positive end expiratory pressure and increased positive inspiratory pressure. Accumulation of fluid in tubing ("rain out") has also been noted. Measures to avoid these complications should be followed carefully (see DOSAGE AND ADMINISTRATION). HematologicAlthough anemia was not reported with use of aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) in controlled clinical trials, most infants treated with the aerosol have not been evaluated 1 to 2 weeks post-treatment when anemia is likely to occur. Anemia has been shown to occur frequently with experimental oral and intravenous Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) in humans. Also, cases of anemia (type unspecified), reticulocytosis and hemolytic anemia associated with aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) use have been reported through post-marketing reporting systems. All have been reversible with discontinuation of the drug. OtherRash and conjunctivitis have been associated with the use of aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin). These usually resolve within hours of discontinuing therapy. Seizures and asthenia associated with experimental intravenous Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) therapy have also been reported. Adverse Events in Health Care Workers Studies of environmental exposure to aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) in health care workers administering care to patients receiving the drug have not detected adverse signs or symptoms related to exposure. However, 152 health care workers have reported experiencing adverse events through post-marketing surveillance. Nearly all were in individuals providing direct care to infants receiving aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin). Of 358 events from these 152 individual health care worker reports, the most common signs and symptoms were headache (51% of reports), conjunctivitis (32%), and rhinitis, nausea, rash, dizziness, pharyngitis, or lacrimation (10-20% each). Several cases of bronchospasm and/or chest pain were also reported, usually in individuals with known underlying reactive airway disease. Several case reports of damage to contact lenses after prolonged close exposure to aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) have also been reported. Most signs and symptoms reported as having occurred in exposed health care workers resolved within minutes to hours of discontinuing close exposure to aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) (also see Information for Health Care Personnel). The symptoms of RSV in adults can include headache, conjunctivitis, sore throat and/or cough, fever, hoarseness, nasal congestion and wheezing, although RSV infections in adults are typically mild and transient. Such infections represent a potential hazaid to uninfected hospital patients. It is unknown whether certain symptoms cited in reports from health care workers were due to exposure to the drug or infection with RSV. Hospitals should implement appropriate infection control procedures. | |
Vero-Ribavirin
Vero-Ribavirin is embryotoxic or teratogenic, or both, at doses well below the recommended human dose in all animal species in which studies have been conducted. Malformations of the skull, palate, eye, jaw, limbs, skeleton and gastrointestinal tract were noted. The incidence and severity of teratogenic effects increased with escalation of the dose. Survival of foetuses and offspring was reduced.
In a juvenile rat toxicity study, pups dosed from postnatal day 7 to 63 with 10, 25 and 50 mg/kg of Vero-Ribavirin demonstrated a dose-related decrease in overall growth, which was subsequently manifested as slight decreases in body weight, crown-rump length and bone length. At the end of the recovery period, tibial and femoral changes were minimal although generally statistically significant compared to controls in males at all dose levels and in females dosed with the two highest doses compared to controls. No histopathological effects on bone were observed. No Vero-Ribavirin effects were observed regarding neurobehavioural or reproductive development. Plasma concentrations achieved in rat pups were below human plasma concentrations at the therapeutic dose.
Erythrocytes are a primary target of toxicity for Vero-Ribavirin in animal studies. Anaemia occurs shortly after initiation of dosing, but is rapidly reversible upon cessation of treatment.
In 3- and 6-month studies in mice to investigate Vero-Ribavirin-induced testicular and sperm effects, abnormalities in sperm, occurred at doses of 15 mg/kg and above. These doses in animals produce systemic exposures well below those achieved in humans at therapeutic doses. Upon cessation of treatment, essentially total recovery from Vero-Ribavirin-induced testicular toxicity occurred within one or two spermatogenic cycles.
Genotoxicity studies have demonstrated that Vero-Ribavirin does exert some genotoxic activity. Vero-Ribavirin was active in the Balb/3T3 in vitro Transformation Assay. Genotoxic activity was observed in the mouse lymphoma assay, and at doses of 20-200 mg/kg in a mouse micronucleus assay. A dominant lethal assay in rats was negative, indicating that if mutations occurred in rats they were not transmitted through male gametes.
Conventional carcinogenicity rodent studies with low exposures compared to human exposure under therapeutic conditions (factor 0.1 in rats and 1 in mice) did not reveal tumorigenicity of Vero-Ribavirin. In addition, in a 26 week carcinogenicity study using the heterozygous p53(+/-) mouse model, Vero-Ribavirin did not produce tumours at the maximally tolerated dose of 300 mg/kg (plasma exposure factor approximately 2.5 compared to human exposure). These studies suggest that a carcinogenic potential of Vero-Ribavirin in humans is unlikely.
Vero-Ribavirin plus interferon
When used in combination with peginterferon alfa-2b or interferon alfa-2b, Vero-Ribavirin did not cause any effects not previously seen with either active substance alone. The major treatment-related change was a reversible mild to moderate anaemia, the severity of which was greater than that produced by either active substance alone.
Vero-Ribavirin is indicated in combination with other medicinal products for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C (CHC) in adults.
Vero-Ribavirin is indicated in combination with other medicinal products for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C (CHC) for paediatric patients (children 3 years of age and older and adolescents) not previously treated and without liver decompensation.
Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) is indicated for the treatment of hospitalized infants and young children with severe lower respiratory tract infections due to respiratory syncytial virus. Treatment early in the course of severe lower respiratory tract infection may be necessary to achieve efficacy.
Only severe RSV lower respiratory tract infection should be treated with Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin). The vast majority of infants and children with RSV infection have disease that is mild, self-limited, and does not require hospitalization or antiviral treatment. Many children with mild lower respiratory tract involvement will require shorter hospitalization than would be required for a full course of Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) aerosol (3 to 7 days) and should not be treated with the drug. Thus the decision to treat with Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) should be based on the severity of the RSV infection. The presence of an underlying condition such as prematurity, immunosuppression or cardiopulmonary disease may increase the severity of clinical manifestations and complications of RSV infection.
Use of aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) in patients requiring mechanical ventilator assistance should be undertaken only by physicians and support staff familiar with this mode of administration and the specific ventilator being used (see WARNINGS, and DOSAGE AND ADMINISTRATION).
DiagnosisRSV infection should be documented by a rapid diagnostic method such as demonstration of viral antigen in respiratory tract secretions by immunofluorescence3 or ELISA5 before or during the first 24 hours of treatment. Treatment may be initiated while awaiting rapid diagnostic test results. However, treatment should not be continued without documentation of RSV infection. Non-culture antigen detection techniques may have false positive or false negative results. Assessment of the clinical situation, the time of year and other parameters may warrant reevaluation of the laboratory diagnosis.
Pharmacotherapeutic group: antivirals for systemic use, nucleosides and nucleotides excl.reverse transcriptase inhibitors, ATC code: J05AB04.
Mechanism of action
Vero-Ribavirin is a synthetic nucleoside analogue which has shown in vitro activity against some RNA and DNA viruses. The mechanism by which Vero-Ribavirin in combination with other medicinal products exerts its effects against HCV is unknown. Oral formulations of Vero-Ribavirin monotherapy have been investigated as therapy for chronic hepatitis C in several clinical trials. Results of these investigations showed that Vero-Ribavirin monotherapy had no effect on eliminating hepatitis virus (HCV-RNA) or improving hepatic histology after 6 to 12 months of therapy and 6 months of follow-up.
Clinical efficacy and safety
Vero-Ribavirin in combination with Direct Antiviral Agent (DAA):
Please refer to the SmPC of the corresponding DAA for a full description of the clinical data with such combination.
Only the description of the use of Vero-Ribavirin from the original development with interferon alfa-2b is detailed in the current SmPC:
Bitherapy with interferon alfa-2b:
The use of Vero-Ribavirin in combination treatment with interferon alfa-2b was evaluated in a number of clinical trials. Eligible patients for these trials had chronic hepatitis C confirmed by a positive HCV-RNA polymerase chain reaction assay (PCR) (> 30 IU/ml), a liver biopsy consistent with a histological diagnosis of chronic hepatitis with no other cause for the chronic hepatitis, and abnormal serum ALT.
Naïve patients
Three trials examined the use of interferon in naïve patients, two with Vero-Ribavirin + interferon alfa-2b (C95-132 and I95-143) and one with Vero-Ribavirin + peginterferon alfa-2b (C/I98-580). In all cases the treatment was for one year with a follow-up of six months. The sustained response at the end of follow-up was significantly increased by the addition of Vero-Ribavirin to interferon alfa-2b (41 % vs 16 %, p < 0.001).
In clinical trials C95-132 and I95-143, Vero-Ribavirin + interferon alfa-2b combination therapy proved to be significantly more effective than interferon alfa-2b monotherapy (a doubling in sustained response). Combination therapy also decreased the relapse rate. This was true for all HCV genotypes.
In clinical trial C/I98-580, 1,530 naïve patients were treated for one year with one of the following combination regimens:
- Vero-Ribavirin (800 mg/day) + peginterferon alfa-2b (1.5 micrograms/kg/week) (n = 511).
- Vero-Ribavirin (1,000/1,200 mg/day) + peginterferon alfa-2b (1.5 micrograms/kg/week for one month followed by 0.5 microgram/kg/week for 11 months) (n = 514).
- Vero-Ribavirin (1,000/1,200 mg/day) + interferon alfa-2b (3 MIU three times a week) (n = 505).
In this trial, the combination of Vero-Ribavirin and peginterferon alfa-2b (1.5 micrograms/kg/week) was significantly more effective than the combination of Vero-Ribavirin and interferon alfa-2b, particularly in patients infected with Genotype 1. Sustained response was assessed by the response rate six months after the cessation of treatment.
HCV genotype and baseline virus load are prognostic factors which are known to affect response rates. However, response rates in this trial were shown to be dependent also on the dose of Vero-Ribavirin administered in combination with peginterferon alfa-2b or interferon alfa-2b. In those patients that received > 10.6 mg/kg Vero-Ribavirin (800 mg dose in typical 75 kg patient), regardless of genotype or viral load, response rates were significantly higher than in those patients that received 10.6 mg/kg Vero-Ribavirin (Table7), while response rates in patients that received > 13.2 mg/kg Vero-Ribavirin were even higher.
| Table 7 Sustained response rates with Vero-Ribavirin + peginterferon alfa-2b (by Vero-Ribavirin dose [mg/kg], genotype and viral load) | ||||
| HCV Genotype | Vero-Ribavirin dose (mg/kg) | P 1.5/R | P 0.5/R | I/R |
| All Genotypes | All ≤ 10.6 > 10.6 | 54 % 50 % 61 % | 47 % 41 % 48 % | 47 % 27 % 47 % |
| Genotype 1 | All ≤ 10.6 > 10.6 | 42 % 38 % 48 % | 34 % 25 % 34 % | 33 % 20 % 34 % |
| Genotype 1 ≤ 600,000 IU/ml | All ≤ 10.6 > 10.6 | 73 % 74 % 71 % | 51 % 25 % 52 % | 45 % 33 % 45 % |
| Genotype 1 > 600,000 IU/ml | All ≤ 10.6 > 10.6 | 30 % 27 % 37 % | 27 % 25 % 27 % | 29 % 17 % 29 % |
| Genotype 2/3 | All ≤ 10.6 > 10.6 | 82 % 79 % 88 % | 80 % 73 % 80 % | 79 % 50 % 80 % |
P1.5/R Vero-Ribavirin (800 mg) + peginterferon alfa-2b (1.5 micrograms/kg)
P0.5/R Vero-Ribavirin (1,000/1,200 mg) + peginterferon alfa-2b (1.5 to 0.5 microgram/kg)
I/R Vero-Ribavirin (1,000/1,200 mg) + interferon alfa-2b (3 MIU)
HCV/HIV Co-infected patients
Two trials have been conducted in patients co-infected with HIV and HCV. The response to treatment in both of these trials is presented in Table 7. Study 1 (RIBAVIC; P01017) was a randomized, multicentre study which enrolled 412 previously untreated adult patients with chronic hepatitis C who were co-infected with HIV. Patients were randomized to receive either Vero-Ribavirin (800 mg/day) plus peginterferon alfa-2b (1.5 µg/kg/week) or Vero-Ribavirin (800 mg/day) plus interferon alfa-2b (3 MIU TIW) for 48 weeks with a follow-up period of 6 months. Study 2 (P02080) was a randomized, single centre study that enrolled 95 previously untreated adult patients with chronic hepatitis C who were co-infected with HIV. Patients were randomized to receive either Vero-Ribavirin (800-1,200 mg/day based on weight) plus peginterferon alfa-2b (100 or 150 µg/week based on weight) or Vero-Ribavirin (800-1,200 mg/day based on weight) plus interferon alfa-2b (3 MIU TIW). The duration of therapy was 48 weeks with a follow-up period of 6 months except for patients infected with genotypes 2 or 3 and viral load < 800,000 IU/ml (Amplicor) who were treated for 24 weeks with a 6 month follow-up period.
| Table 7 Sustained virological response based on genotype after Vero-Ribavirin in combination with peginterferon alfa-2b in HCV/HIV co-infected patients | ||||||
| Study 11 | Study 22 | |||||
| Vero-Ribavirin (800 mg/day) + peginterferon alfa-2b (1.5 µg/kg/week) | Vero-Ribavirin (800 mg/day) + interferon alfa-2b (3 MIU TIW) | p valuea | Vero-Ribavirin (800-1,200 mg/day)d + peginterferon alfa-2b (100 or 150cµg/week) | Vero-Ribavirin (800-1,200 mg/day)d + interferon alfa-2b (3 MIU TIW) | p valueb | |
| All | 27 % (56/205) | 20 % (41/205) | 0.047 | 44 % (23/52) | 21 % (9/43) | 0.017 |
| Genotype 1, 4 | 17 % (21/125) | 6 % (8/129) | 0.006 | 38 % (12/32) | 7 % (2/27) | 0.007 |
| Genotype 2, 3 | 44 % (35/80) | 43 % (33/76) | 0.88 | 53 % (10/19) | 47 % (7/15) | 0.730 |
MIU = million international units; TIW = three times a week.
a: p value based on Cochran-Mantel Haenszel Chi square test.
b: p value based on chi-square test.
c: subjects < 75 kg received 100 µg/week peginterferon alfa-2b and subjects > 75 kg received 150 µg/week peginterferon alfa-2b.
d: Vero-Ribavirin dosing was 800 mg for patients < 60 kg, 1,000 mg for patients 60-75 kg, and 1,200 mg for patients > 75 kg.
1Carrat F, Bani-Sadr F, Pol S et al. JAMA 2004; 292(23): 2839-2848.
2 Laguno M, Murillas J, Blanco J.L et al. AIDS 2004; 18(13): F27-F36.
Histological response
Liver biopsies were obtained before and after treatment in Study 1 and were available for 210 of the 412 subjects (51 %). Both the Metavir score and Ishak grade decreased among subjects treated with Vero-Ribavirin in combination with peginterferon alfa-2b. This decline was significant among responders (-0.3 for Metavir and -1.2 for Ishak) and stable (-0.1 for Metavir and -0.2 for Ishak) among non-responders. In terms of activity, about one-third of sustained responders showed improvement and none showed worsening. There was no improvement in terms of fibrosis observed in this study. Steatosis was significantly improved in patients infected with HCV Genotype 3.
-Retreatment of relapse patients with Vero-Ribavirin and interferon alfa-2b combination treatment
Two trials examined the use of Vero-Ribavirin and interferon alfa-2b combination treatment in relapse patients (C95-144 and I95-145); 345 chronic hepatitis patients who had relapsed after previous interferon treatment were treated for six months with a six month follow-up. Combination therapy with Vero-Ribavirin and interferon alfa-2b resulted in a sustained virological response that was ten-fold higher than that with interferon alfa-2b alone (49 % vs 5 %, p < 0.0001). This benefit was maintained irrespective of standard predictors of response to interferon alfa-2b such as virus level, HCV genotype and histological staging.
Long-term efficacy data - Adults
Two large long-term follow-up studies enrolled 1,071 patients and 567 patients after treatment in prior studies with non-pegylated interferon alfa-2b (with or without Vero-Ribavirin) and pegylated interferon alfa-2b (with or without Vero-Ribavirin), respectively. The purpose of the studies was to evaluate the durability of sustained virologic response (SVR) and assess the impact of continued viral negativity on clinical outcomes. At least 5 years of long-term follow-up was completed after treatment in 462 patients and 327 patients, respectively. Twelve out of 492 sustained responders and only 3 out of 366 sustained responders relapsed, respectively, in the studies.
The Kaplan-Meier estimate for continued sustained response over 5 years is 97 % (95 % CI: 95-99 %) for patients receiving non-pegylated interferon alfa-2b (with or without Vero-Ribavirin), and is 99 % (95 % CI: 98-100 %) for patients receiving pegylated interferon alfa-2b (with or without Vero-Ribavirin).
SVR after treatment of chronic HCV with interferon alfa-2b (pegylated and non-pegylated,with or without Vero-Ribavirin) results in long-term clearance of the virus providing resolution of the hepatic infection and clinical 'cure' from chronic HCV. However, this does not preclude the occurrence of hepatic events in patients with cirrhosis (including hepatocarcinoma).
Paediatric population
Clinical efficacy and safety
Vero-Ribavirin in combination with interferon alfa-2b
Children and adolescents 3 to 16 years of age with compensated chronic hepatitis C and detectable HCV-RNA (assessed by a central laboratory using a research-based RT-PCR assay) were enrolled in two multicentre trials and received Vero-Ribavirin 15 mg/kg per day plus interferon alfa-2b 3 MIU/m2 3 times a week for 1 year followed by 6 months follow-up after treatment. A total of 118 patients were enrolled: 57 % male, 80 % Caucasian, and 78 % genotype 1, 64 % ≤12 years of age. The population enrolled mainly consisted in children with mild to moderate hepatitis C. In the two multicentre trials, sustained virological response rates in children and adolescents were similar to those in adults. Due to the lack of data in these two multicentre trials for children with severe progression of the disease, and the potential for undesirable effects, the benefit/risk of the combination of Vero-Ribavirin and interferon alfa-2b needs to be carefully considered in this population.
The study results are summarized in Table 9.
| Table 9 Sustained virological response in previously untreated children and adolescents | |
| Vero-Ribavirin 15 mg/kg/day + interferon alfa-2b 3 MIU/m2 3 times a week | |
| Overall Responsea (n = 118) | 54 (46 %)* |
| Genotype 1 (n = 92) | 33 (36 %)* |
| Genotype 2/3/4 (n = 26) | 21 (81 %)* |
* Number (%) of patients
a. Defined as HCV-RNA below limit of detection using a research based RT-PCR assay at end of treatment and during follow-up period.
Long-term efficacy data
Vero-Ribavirin in combination with interferon alfa-2b
A five-year long-term, observational, follow-up study enrolled 97 paediatric chronic hepatitis C patients after treatment in two previously mentioned multicentre trials. Seventy percent (68/97) of all enrolled subjects completed this study of which 75 % (42/56) were sustained responders. The purpose of the study was to annually evaluate the durability of sustained virologic response (SVR) and assess the impact of continued viral negativity on clinical outcomes for patients who were sustained responders 24 weeks post-treatment of the 48-week interferon alfa-2b and Vero-Ribavirin treatment. All but one of the paediatric subjects remained sustained virologic responders during long-term follow-up after completion of treatment with interferon alfa-2b plus Vero-Ribavirin. The Kaplan-Meier estimate for continued sustained response over 5 years is 98 % [95 % CI: 95 %, 100 %] for paediatric patients treated with interferon alfa-2b and Vero-Ribavirin. Additionally, 98 % (51/52) with normal ALT levels at follow-up week 24 maintained normal ALT levels at their last visit.
SVR after treatment of chronic HCV with non-pegylated interferon alfa-2b with Vero-Ribavirin results in long-term clearance of the virus providing resolution of the hepatic infection and clinical 'cure' from chronic HCV. However, this does not preclude the occurrence of hepatic events in patients with cirrhosis (including hepatocarcinoma).
In a single dose, crossover study of Vero-Ribavirin in healthy adult subjects, the capsule and oral solution formulations were found to be bioequivalent.
Absorption
Vero-Ribavirin is absorbed rapidly following oral administration of a single dose (mean Tmax= 1.5 hours), followed by rapid distribution and prolonged elimination phases (single dose half-lives of absorption, distribution and elimination are 0.05, 3.73 and 79 hours, respectively). Absorption is extensive with approximately 10 % of a radiolabelled dose excreted in the faeces. However, absolute bioavailability is approximately 45 %-65 %, which appears to be due to first pass metabolism. There is a linear relationship between dose and AUCtf following single doses of 200-1,200 mg Vero-Ribavirin. Volume of distribution is approximately 5,000 l. Vero-Ribavirin does not bind to plasma proteins.
Distribution
Vero-Ribavirin transport in non-plasma compartments has been most extensively studied in red cells, and has been identified to be primarily via an es-type equilibrative nucleoside transporter. This type of transporter is present on virtually all cell types and may account for the high volume of distribution of Vero-Ribavirin. The ratio of whole blood:plasma Vero-Ribavirin concentrations is approximately 60:1; the excess of Vero-Ribavirin in whole blood exists as Vero-Ribavirin nucleotides sequestered in erythrocytes.
Biotransformation
Vero-Ribavirin has two pathways of metabolism: 1) a reversible phosphorylation pathway; 2) a degradative pathway involving deribosylation and amide hydrolysis to yield a triazole carboxyacid metabolite. Both Vero-Ribavirin and its triazole carboxamide and triazole carboxylic acid metabolites are also excreted renally.
Vero-Ribavirin has been shown to produce high inter- and intra-subject pharmacokinetic variability following single oral doses (intrasubject variability of approximately 30 % for both AUC and Cmax), which may be due to extensive first pass metabolism and transfer within and beyond the blood compartment.
Elimination
Upon multiple dosing, Vero-Ribavirin accumulates extensively in plasma with a six-fold ratio of multiple-dose to single-dose AUC12hr. Following oral dosing with 600 mg BID, steady-state was reached by approximately four weeks, with mean steady state plasma concentrations approximately 2,200 ng/ml. Upon discontinuation of dosing the half-life was approximately 298 hours, which probably reflects slow elimination from non-plasma compartments.
Transfer into seminal fluid
Seminal transfer of Vero-Ribavirin has been studied. Vero-Ribavirin concentration in seminal fluid is approximately two-fold higher compared to serum. However, Vero-Ribavirin systemic exposure of a female partner after sexual intercourse with a treated patient has been estimated and remains extremely limited compared to therapeutic plasma concentration of Vero-Ribavirin.
Food effect
The bioavailability of a single oral dose of Vero-Ribavirin was increased by co-administration of a high fat meal (AUCtf and Cmax both increased by 70 %). It is possible that the increased bioavailability in this study was due to delayed transit of Vero-Ribavirin or modified pH. The clinical relevance of results from this single dose study is unknown. In the pivotal clinical efficacy trial, patients were instructed to take Vero-Ribavirin with food to achieve the maximal plasma concentration of Vero-Ribavirin.
Renal function
Based on published data,Single-dose Vero-Ribavirin pharmacokinetics was altered (increased AUCtf and Cmax) in patients with renal dysfunction compared with control subjects (creatinine clearance > 90 ml/minute). The mean AUCtf was threefold greater in subjects with creatinine clearance between 10 and 30 mL/min compared with control subjects. In subjects with creatinine clearance between 30 and 50 mL/min, AUCtf was twofold greater compared with control subjects. This appears to be due to reduction of apparent clearance in these patients. Vero-Ribavirin concentrations are essentially unchanged by haemodialysis.
Hepatic function
Single-dose pharmacokinetics of Vero-Ribavirin in patients with mild, moderate or severe hepatic dysfunction (Child-Pugh Classification A, B or C) are similar to those of normal controls.
Elderly patients (> 65 years of age)
Specific pharmacokinetic evaluations for elderly subjects have not been performed. However, in a population pharmacokinetic study, age was not a key factor in the kinetics of Vero-Ribavirin; renal function is the determining factor.
Population pharmacokinetic analysis was performed using sparsely sampled serum concentration values from four controlled clinical trials. The clearance model developed showed that body weight, gender, age, and serum creatinine were the main covariates. For males, clearance was approximately 20 % higher than for females. Clearance increased as a function of body weight and was reduced at ages greater than 40 years. Effects of these covariates on Vero-Ribavirin clearance appear to be of limited clinical significance due to the substantial residual variability not accounted for by the model.
Paediatric population
Vero-Ribavirin in combination with interferon alfa-2b
Multiple-dose pharmacokinetic properties for Vero-Ribavirin capsules and interferon alfa-2b in children and adolescents with chronic hepatitis C between 5 and 16 years of age are summarized in Table 10. The pharmacokinetics of Vero-Ribavirin and interferon alfa-2b (dose-normalized) are similar in adults and children or adolescents.
| Table 10. Mean (% CV) multiple-dose pharmacokinetic parameters for interferon alfa-2b and Vero-Ribavirin when administered to children or adolescents with chronic hepatitis C | ||
| Parameter | Vero-Ribavirin 15 mg/kg/day as 2 divided doses (n = 17) | Interferon alfa-2b 3 MIU/m2 3 times a week (n = 54) |
| Tmax (hr) | 1.9 (83) | 5.9 (36) |
| Cmax (ng/ml) | 3,275 (25) | 51 (48) |
| AUC* | 29,774 (26) | 622 (48) |
| Apparent clearance l/hr/kg | 0.27 (27) | Not done |
*AUC12 (ng.hr/ml) for Vero-Ribavirin; AUC0-24 (IU.hr/ml) for interferon alfa-2b
).In vivo carcinogenicity studies with ribavirin are incomplete. However, results of a chronic feeding study with ribavirin in rats, at doses of 16-100 mg/kg/day (estimated human equivalent of 2.3-14.3 mg/kg/day, based on body surface area adjustment for the adult), suggest that ribavirin may induce benign mammary, pancreatic, pituitary and adrenal tumors. Preliminary results of 2 oral gavage oncogenicity studies in the mouse and rat (18-24 months; doses of 20-75 and 10-40 mg/kg/day, respectively [estimated human equivalent of 1.67-6.25 and 1.43-5.71 mg/kg/day, respectively, based on body surface area adjustment for the adult]) are inconclusive as to the carcinogenic potential of ribavirin (see Pharmacokinetics). However, these studies have demonstrated a relationship between chronic ribavirin exposure and increased incidences of vascular lesions (microscopic hemorrhages in mice) and retinal degeneration (in rats).
Impairment of FertilityThe fertility of ribavirin-treated animals (male or female) has not been fully investigated. However, in the mouse, administration of ribavirin at doses between 35-150 mg/kg/day (estimated human equivalent of 2.92-12.5 mg/kg/day, based on body surface area adjustment for the adult) resulted in significant seminiferous tubule atrophy, decreased sperm concentrations, and increased numbers of sperm with abnormal morphology. Partial recovery of sperm production was apparent 3-6 months following dose cessation. In several additional toxicology studies, ribavirin has been shown to cause testicular lesions (tubular atrophy) in adult rats at oral dose levels as low as 16 mg/kg/day (estimated human equivalent of 2.29 mg/kg/day, based on body surface area adjustment; see Pharmacokinetics). Lower doses were not tested. The reproductive capacity of treated male animals has not been studied
Pregnancy: Category XRibavirin has demonstrated significant teratogenic and/or embryocidal potential in all animal species in which adequate studies have been conducted. Teratogenic effects were evident after single oral doses of 2.5 mg/kg or greater in the hamster, and after daily oral doses of 0.3 and 1.0 mg/kg in the rabbit and rat, respectively (estimated human equivalent doses of 0.12 and 0.14 mg/kg, based on body surface area adjustment for the adult). Malformations of the skull, palate, eye, jaw, limbs, skeleton, and gastrointestinal tract were noted. The incidence and severity of teratogenic effects increased with escalation of the drug dose. Survival of fetuses and offspring was reduced. Ribavirin caused embryo lethality in the rabbit at daily oral dose levels as low as 1 mg/kg. No teratogenic effects were evident in the rabbit and rat administered daily oral doses of 0.1 and 0.3 mg/kg, respectively with estimated human equivalent doses of 0.01 and 0.04 mg/kg, based on body surface area adjustment (see Pharmacokinetics). These doses are considered to define the "No Observable Teratogenic Effects Level" (NOTEL) for ribavirin in the rabbit and rat.
Following oral administration of ribavirin in the pregnant rat (1.0 mg/kg) and rabbit (0.3 mg/kg), mean plasma levels of drug ranged from 0.104.20 µM[0.024-0.049 u/mL] at 1 hour after dosing, to undetectable levels at 24 hours. At 1 hour following the administration of 0.3 or 0.1 mg/kg in the rat and rabbit (NOTEL), respectively, mean plasma levels of drug in both species were near or below the limit of detection (0.05 µM; see Pharmacokinetics).
Although clinical studies have not been performed, Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) may cause fetal harm in humans. As noted previously, ribavirin is concentrated in red blood cells and persists for the life of the cell. Thus the terminal half-life for the systemic elimination of ribavirin is essentially that of the half-life of circulating erythrocytes. The minimum interval following exposure to Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) before pregnancy may be safely initiated is unknown (see CONTRAINDICATIONS, WARNINGS, and Information for Health Care Personnel).
Nursing MothersVero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) has been shown to be toxic to lactating animals and their offspring. It is not known if Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) is excreted in human milk.
Information for Health Care PersonnelHealth care workers directly providing care to patients receiving aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin should be aware that ribavirin has been shown to be teratogenic in all animal species in which adequate studies have been conducted (rodents and rabbits). Although no reports of teratogenesis in offspring of mothers who were exposed to aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) during pregnancy have been confirmed, no controlled studies have been conducted in pregnant women. Studies of environmental exposure in treatment settings have shown that the drug can disperse into the immediate bedside area during routine patient care activities with highest ambient levels closest to the patient and extremely low levels outside of the immediate bedside area. Adverse reactions resulting from actual occupational exposure in adults are described below (see Adverse Events in Health Care Workers). Some studies have documented ambient drug concentrations at the bedside that could potentially lead to systemic exposures above those considered safe for exposure during pregnancy (1/1000 of the NOTEL dose in the most sensitive animal species).7,8,9
A1992 study conducted by the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) demonstrated measurable urine levels of ribavirin in health care workers exposed to aerosol in the course of direct patient care.7 Levels were lowest in workers caring for infants receiving aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) with mechanical ventilation and highest in those caring for patients being administered the drug via an oxygen tent or hood. This study employed a more sensitive assay to evaluate ribavirin levels in urine than was available for several previous studies of environmental exposure that failed to detect measurable ribavirin levels in exposed workers. Creatinine adjusted urine levels in the NIOSH study ranged from less than 0.001 to 0.140 µM of ribavirin per gram of creatinine in exposed workers. However, the relationship between urinary ribavirin levels in exposed workers, plasma levels in animal studies, and the specific risk of teratogenesis in exposed pregnant women is unknown.
It is good practice to avoid unnecessary occupational exposure to chemicals wherever possible. Hospitals are encouraged to conduct training programs to minimize potential occupational exposure to Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin). Health care workers who are pregnant should consider avoiding direct care of patients receiving aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin). If close patient contact cannot be avoided, precautions to limit exposure should be taken. These include administration of Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) in negative pressure rooms; adequate room ventilation (at least six air exchanges per hour); the use of Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) aerosol scavenging devices; turning off the SPAG-2 device for 5 to 10 minutes prior to prolonged patient contact; and wearing appropriately fitted respirator masks. Surgical masks do not provide adequate filtration of Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) particles. Further information is available from NIOSH's Hazard Evaluation and Technical Assistance Branch and additional recommendations have been published in an Aerosol Consensus Statement by the American Respiratory Care Foundation and the American Association for Respiratory Care10
REFERENCES
7. Decker, John, Shultz, Ruth A., Health Hazaid Evaluation Report: Florida Hospital, Orlando, Florida. Cincinnati OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for NIOSH Report No. HETA 91 -104-2229.*
8. Barnes, D.J. and Doursew, M. Reference dose: Description and use in health risk assessments. Regul Tox. and Pharm. Vol. 8; p. 471-486, 1988.
9. Federal Register Vol. 53 No. 126 Thurs. June 30,1988 p. 2483424847.
10. American Association for Respiratory Care [1991]. Aerosol Consensus Statement-1991. Respiratory Care 36(9): 916-921.
Overdosage & Contraindications OVERDOSENo overdosage with Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) by aerosol administration has been reported in humans. The LDM in mice is 2 g orally and is associated with hypoactivity and gastrointestinal symptoms (estimated human equivalent dose of 0.17 g/kg, based on body surface area conversion). The mean plasma half-life after administration of aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) for pediatric patients is 9.5 hours. Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) is concentrated and persists in red blood cells for the life of the erythrocyte (see Pharmacokinetics).
CONTRAINDICATIONSVero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) is contraindicated in individuals who have shown Hypersensitivity to the drug or its components, and in women who are or may become pregnant during exposure to the drug. Ribavirin has demonstrated significant teratogenic and/or embryocidal potential in all animal species in which adequate studies have been conducted (rodents and rabbits). Therefore, although clinical studies have not been performed, it should be assumed that Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) may cause fetal harm in humans. Studies in which the drug has been administered systemically demonstrate that ribavirin is concentrated in the red blood cells and persists for the life of the erythrocyte.
Clinical Pharmacology CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY Mechanism of ActionIn cell cultures the inhibitory activity of ribavirin for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is selective. The mechanism of action is unknown. Reversal of the in vitroantiviral activity by guanosine or xanthosine suggests ribavirin may act as an analogue of these cellular metabolites.
MicrobiologyRfvavirin has demonstrated antiviral activity against RSV in vitro and in experimentally infected cotton rats.2 Several clinical isolates of RSV were evaluated for ribavirin susceptibility by plaque reduction in tissue culture. Plaques were reduced 85-98% by 16 µg/mL; however, results may vary with the test system. The development of resistance has not been evaluated in vitro or in clinical trials.
In addition to the above, ribavirin has been shown to have in vitro activity against influenza A and B viruses and herpes simplex virus, but the clinical significance of these data is unknown.
Immunologic EffectsNeutralizing antibody responses to RSV were decreased in aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) treated infants compared to placebo treated infants.3 One study also showed that RSV-specific IgE antibody in bronchial secretions was decreased in patients treated with aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin. In rats, ribavirin administration resulted in lymphoid atrophy of the thymus, spleen and lymph nodes. Humoral immunity was reduced in guinea pigs and ferrets. Cellular immunity was also mildly depressed in animal studies. The clinical significance of these observations is unknown.
PharmacokineticsAssay for Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) in human materials is by a radio immunoassay which detects ribavirin and at least one metabolite.
Vero-Ribavirin brand of ribavirin, when administered by aerosol, is absorbed systemically. Four pediatric patients inhaling Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) aerosol administered by face mask for 2.5 hours each day for 3 days had plasma concentrations ranging from 0.44 to 1.55 fJM, with a mean concentration of 0.76 µM. The plasma half-life was reported to be 9.5 hours. Three pediatric patients inhaling aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) administered by face mask or mist tent for 20 hours each day for 5 days had plasma concentrations ranging from 1.5 to 14.3 µM, with a mean concentration of 6.8 µM.
The bioavailability of aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) is unknown and may depend on the mode of aerosol delivery. After aerosol treatment, peak plasma concentrations of ribavirin are 85% to 98% less than the concentration that reduced RSV plaque formation in tissue culture. After aerosol treatment, respiratory tract secretions are likely to contain ribavirin in concentrations many fold higher than those required to reduce plaque formation. However, RSV is an intracellular virus and it is unknown whether plasma concentrations or respiratory secretion concentrations of the drug better reflect intracellular concentrations in the respiratory tract.
In man, rats, and rhesus monkeys, accumulation of ribavirin and/or metabolites in the red blood cells has been noted, plateauing in red cells in man in about 4 days and gradually declining with an apparent half-life of 40 days (the half-life of erythrocytes). The extent of accumulation of ribavirin following inhalation therapy is not well defined.
Animal ToxicologyRibavirin, when administered orally or as an aerosol, produced cardiac lesions in mice, rats, and monkeys, when given at doses of 30,36 and f 20 mg/kg or greater for 4 weeks or more (estimated human equivalent doses of 4.8,12.3 and 111.4 mg/kg for a 5 kg child, or 2.5,5.1 and 40 mg/kg for a 60 kg adult, based on body surface area adjustment). Aerosolized ribavirin administered to developing ferrets at 60 mg/kg for 10 or 30 days resulted in inflammatory and possibly emphysematous changes in the lungs. Proliferative changes were seen in the lungs following exposure at 131 mg/kg for 30 days. The significance of these findings to human administration is unknown.
Description of StudiesNon-Mechanlcally-Ventllated Infants: In two placebo controlled trials in infants hospitalized with RSV lower respiratory tract infection, aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) treatment had a therapeutic effect, as judged by the reduction in severity of clinical manifestations of disease by treatment day 3.3, < Treatment was most effective when instituted within the first 3 days of clinical illness. Virus titers in respiratory secretions were also significantly reduced with Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) in one of these original studies.4 Additional controlled studies conducted since these initial trials of aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) in the treatment of RSV infection have supported these data.
Mechanically-Ventilated Infants: A randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled evaluation of aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) at the recommended dose was conducted in 28 infants requiring mechanical ventilation for respiratory failure caused by documented RSV infection.8 Mean age was 1.4 months (SD, 1.7 months). Seven patients had underlying diseases predisposing them to severe infection and 21 were previously normal. Aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) treatment significantly decreased the duration of mechanical ventilation required (4.9 vs. 9.9 days, p=0.01) and duration of required supplemental oxygen (8.7 vs. 13.5 days, p=0.01). Intensive patient management and monitoring techniques were employed in this study. These included endotracheal tube suctioning every 1 to 2 hours; recording of proximal airway pressure, ventilatory rate, and F102 every hour; and arterial blood gas monitoring every 2 to 6 hours. To reduce the risk of Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) precipitation and ventilator malfunction, heated wire tubing, two bacterial filters connected in series in the expiratory limb of the ventilator (with filter changes every 4 hours), and water column pressure release valves to monitor internal ventilator pressures were used in connecting ventilator circuits to the SPAG-2.
Employing these techniques, no technical difficulties with Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) administration were encountered during the study. Adverse events consisted of bacterial pneumonia in one case, staphyloma bacteremia in one case and two cases of post-extubation stridor. None were felt to be related to Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) administration.
REFERENCES
1. Hruska JF, Bernstein JM, Douglas Jr., RG, and Hall CB. Effects of Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) on respiratory syncytial virus in vitro. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 17:770-775,1 1980.
2. Hruska JF, Morrow PE, Suffin SC, and Douglas Jr., RG. In vivo inhibition of respiratory syncytial virus by Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin). Antimicrob Agents Chemother 21:125-130,1982.
3. Taber LH, Knight V, Gilbert BE, McClung HW et al. Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) aerosol treatment of bronchiolitis associated with respiratory tract infection in infants. Pediatrics 72:613-618,1983.
Vero-Ribavirin must be used in combination with other medicinal products.
Please refer to the SmPC of (peg)interferon alfa for details on the recommendations of monitoring and management regarding the adverse reactions listed below before initiating therapy and other precautions associated with (peg)interferon alfa.
There are several serious adverse reactions associated with the combination therapy of Vero-Ribavirin with (peg)interferon alfa.
These include:
- Severe psychiatric and central nervous system effects (such as depression, suicidal ideation, attempted suicide and aggressive behaviour, etc.)
- Growth inhibition in children and adolescents that may be irreversible in some patients
- Increased thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) in children and adolescents
- Severe ocular disorders
- Dental and periodontal disorders.
Paediatric population
When deciding not to defer combination treatment with peginterferon alfa-2b or interferon alfa-2b until adulthood, it is important to consider that this combination therapy induced a growth inhibition that may be irreversible in some patients. The decision to treat should be made on a case by case
Haemolysis:
A decrease in haemoglobin levels to < 10 g/dl was observed in up to 14 % of adult patients and 7 % of children and adolescents treated with Vero-Ribavirin in combination with peginterferon alfa-2b or interferon alfa-2b in clinical trials. Although Vero-Ribavirin has no direct cardiovascular effects, anaemia associated with Vero-Ribavirin may result in deterioration of cardiac function, or exacerbation of the symptoms of coronary disease, or both. Thus, Vero-Ribavirin must be administered with caution to patients with pre-existing cardiac disease. Cardiac status must be assessed before start of therapy and monitored clinically during therapy; if any deterioration occurs, therapy must be stopped.
Cardiovascular:
Adult patients with a history of congestive heart failure, myocardial infarction and/or previous or current arrhythmic disorders must be closely monitored. It is recommended that those patients who have pre-existing cardiac abnormalities have electrocardiograms taken prior to and during the course of treatment. Cardiac arrhythmias (primarily supraventricular) usually respond to conventional therapy but may require discontinuation of therapy. There are no data in children or adolescents with a history of cardiac disease.
Teratogenic risk
Prior to initiation of treatment with Vero-Ribavirin the physician must comprehensively inform both male and female patients of the teratogenic risk of Vero-Ribavirin, the necessity of effective and continuous contraception, the possibility that contraceptive methods may fail and the possible consequences of pregnancy should it occur during or following treatment with Vero-Ribavirin. For laboratory monitoring of pregnancy, please refer to Laboratory tests.
Acute hypersensitivity:
If an acute hypersensitivity reaction (e.g., urticaria, angioedema, bronchoconstriction, anaphylaxis) develops, Vero-Ribavirin must be discontinued immediately and appropriate medical therapy instituted. Transient rashes do not necessitate interruption of treatment.
Liver function:
Any patient developing significant liver function abnormalities during treatment must be monitored closely. Please refer to the corresponding SmPC of medicinal products used in combination with Vero-Ribavirin for discontinuation or dose modification recommendations.
Renal impairment
The pharmacokinetics of Vero-Ribavirin is altered in patients with renal dysfunction due to reduction of apparent clearance in these patients. Therefore, it is recommended that renal function be evaluated in all patients prior to initiation of Vero-Ribavirin. Due to substantial increases in Vero-Ribavirin plasma concentrations in patients with moderate and severe renal impairment, Vero-Ribavirin dose adjustments are recommended in adult patients with creatinine clearance < 50 mL/minute. No data are available regarding dose modification for paediatric patients with renal impairment.
Haemoglobin concentrations should be monitored closely during treatment and corrective action taken as necessary.
Potential to exacerbate immunosuppression:
Pancytopenia and bone marrow suppression have been reported in the literature to occur within 3 to 7 weeks after the administration of a peginterferon and Vero-Ribavirin concomitantly with azathioprine. This myelotoxicity was reversible within 4 to 6 weeks upon withdrawal of HCV antiviral therapy and concomitant azathioprine and did not recur upon reintroduction of either treatment alone.
HCV/HIV Co-infection:
Mitochondrial toxicity and lactic acidosis:
Caution should be taken in HIV-positive subjects co-infected with HCV who receive nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) treatment (especially ddI and d4T) and associated interferon alfa-2b/Vero-Ribavirin treatment.
Hepatic decompensation in HCV/HIV co-infected patients with advanced cirrhosis:
Co-infected patients with advanced cirrhosis receiving combined anti-retroviral therapy (cART) may be at increased risk of hepatic decompensation and death. Other baseline factors in co-infected patients that may be associated with a higher risk of hepatic decompensation include treatment with didanosine and elevated bilirubin serum concentrations.
Co-infected patients receiving both antiretroviral (ARV) and anti-hepatitis treatment should be closely monitored, assessing their Child-Pugh score during treatment. Please refer to the corresponding SmPC of medicinal products used in combination with Vero-Ribavirin for discontinuation or dose modification recommendations.Patients progressing to hepatic decompensation should have their anti-hepatitis treatment immediately discontinued and the ARV treatment reassessed.
Haematological abnormalities in HCV/HIV co-infected patients
Patients treated with Vero-Ribavirin and zidovudine are at increased risk of developing anaemia; therefore, the concomitant use of Vero-Ribavirin with zidovudine is not recommended.
Patients with low CD4 counts:
In patients co-infected with HCV/HIV, limited efficacy and safety data (N = 25) are available in subjects with CD4 counts less than 200 cells/µl. Caution is therefore warranted in the treatment of patients with low CD4 counts.
Please refer to the respective SmPC of the antiretroviral medicinal products that are to be taken concurrently with HCV therapy for awareness and management of toxicities specific for each product and the potential for overlapping toxicities with.
Laboratory tests: Standard haematologic tests and blood chemistries (complete blood count [CBC] and differential, platelet count, electrolytes, serum creatinine, liver function tests, uric acid) and pregnancy tests must be conducted in all patients prior to initiating therapy. Acceptable baseline values that may be considered as a guideline prior to initiation of Vero-Ribavirin therapy:
| Haemoglobin | Adult: > 12 g/dl (females); > 13 g/dl (males) Children and adolescents: > 11 g/dl (females); > 12 g/dl (males) |
| Platelets | > 100,000/mm3 |
| Neutrophil Count | > 1,500/mm3 |
Laboratory evaluations are to be conducted at weeks 2 and 4 of therapy, and periodically thereafter as clinically appropriate. HCV-RNA should be measured periodically during treatment.
Uric acid may increase with Vero-Ribavirin due to haemolysis; therefore, the potential for development of gout must be carefully monitored in pre-disposed patients.
Information on excipients
Each Vero-Ribavirin capsule contains 40 mg of lactose.
Patients with rare hereditary problems of galactose intolerance, Lapp lactase deficiency or glucose-galactose malabsorption should not take this medicine.
WARNINGSSUDDEN DETERIORATION OF RESPIRATORY FUNCTION HAS BEEN ASSOCIATED WITH INITIATION OF AEROSOLIZED Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) USE IN INFANTS. Respiratory function should be carefully monitored during treatment. If initiation of aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) treatment appears to produce sudden deterioration of respiratory function, treatment should be stopped and reinstituted only with extreme caution, continuous monitoring, and consideration of concomitant administration of bronchodilators.
Use with Mechanical VentilatorsUSE OF AEROSOLIZED Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) IN PATIENTS REQUIRING MECHANICAL VENTILATOR ASSISTANCE SHOULD BE UNDERTAKEN ONLY BY PHYSICIANS AND SUPPORT STAFF FAMILIAR WITH THIS MODE OF ADMINISTRATION AND THE SPECIFIC VENTILATOR BEING USED. Strict attention must be paid to procedures that have been shown to minimize the accumulation of drug precipitate, which can result in mechanical ventilator dysfunction and associated increased pulmonary pressures. These procedures include the use of bacteria filters in series in the expiratory limb of the ventilator circuit with frequent changes (every 4 hours), water column pressure release valves to indicate elevated ventilator pressures, frequent monitoring of these devices and verification that ribavirin crystals have not accumulated within the ventilator circuitry, and frequent suctioning and monitoring of the patient (see Clinical Studies).
Those administering aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) in conjunction with mechanical ventilator use should be thoroughly familiar with detailed descriptions of these procedures as outlined in the SPAG-2 manual.
PRECAUTIONS GeneralPatients with severe lower respiratory tract infection due to respiratory syncytial virus require optimum monitoring and attention to respiratory and fluid status (see SPAG-2 manual).
Carcinogenesis and MutagenesisRibavirin increased the incidence of cell transformations and mutations in mouse Balb/c 3T3 (fibroblasts) and L5178Y (lymphoma) cells at concentrations of 0.015 and 0.03-5.0 mg/mL, respectively (without metabolic activation). Modest increases in mutation rates (3-4x) were observed at concentrations between 3.75-10.0 mg/mL in L5178Y cells in vitro with the addition of a metabolic activation fraction. In the mouse micronucleus assay, ribavirin was clastogenic at intravenous doses of 20-200 mg/kg, (estimated human equivalent of 1.67-16.7 mg/kg, based on body surface area adjustment for a 60 kg adult). Ribavirin was not mutagenic in a dominant lethal assay in rats at intraperitoneal doses between 50-200 mg/kg when administered for 5 days (estimated human equivalent of 7.14-28.6 mg/kg, based on body surface area adjustment; see Pharmacokinetics).
In vivo carcinogenicity studies with ribavirin are incomplete. However, results of a chronic feeding study with ribavirin in rats, at doses of 16-100 mg/kg/day (estimated human equivalent of 2.3-14.3 mg/kg/day, based on body surface area adjustment for the adult), suggest that ribavirin may induce benign mammary, pancreatic, pituitary and adrenal tumors. Preliminary results of 2 oral gavage oncogenicity studies in the mouse and rat (18-24 months; doses of 20-75 and 10-40 mg/kg/day, respectively [estimated human equivalent of 1.67-6.25 and 1.43-5.71 mg/kg/day, respectively, based on body surface area adjustment for the adult]) are inconclusive as to the carcinogenic potential of ribavirin (see Pharmacokinetics). However, these studies have demonstrated a relationship between chronic ribavirin exposure and increased incidences of vascular lesions (microscopic hemorrhages in mice) and retinal degeneration (in rats).
Impairment of FertilityThe fertility of ribavirin-treated animals (male or female) has not been fully investigated. However, in the mouse, administration of ribavirin at doses between 35-150 mg/kg/day (estimated human equivalent of 2.92-12.5 mg/kg/day, based on body surface area adjustment for the adult) resulted in significant seminiferous tubule atrophy, decreased sperm concentrations, and increased numbers of sperm with abnormal morphology. Partial recovery of sperm production was apparent 3-6 months following dose cessation. In several additional toxicology studies, ribavirin has been shown to cause testicular lesions (tubular atrophy) in adult rats at oral dose levels as low as 16 mg/kg/day (estimated human equivalent of 2.29 mg/kg/day, based on body surface area adjustment; see Pharmacokinetics). Lower doses were not tested. The reproductive capacity of treated male animals has not been studied
Pregnancy: Category XRibavirin has demonstrated significant teratogenic and/or embryocidal potential in all animal species in which adequate studies have been conducted. Teratogenic effects were evident after single oral doses of 2.5 mg/kg or greater in the hamster, and after daily oral doses of 0.3 and 1.0 mg/kg in the rabbit and rat, respectively (estimated human equivalent doses of 0.12 and 0.14 mg/kg, based on body surface area adjustment for the adult). Malformations of the skull, palate, eye, jaw, limbs, skeleton, and gastrointestinal tract were noted. The incidence and severity of teratogenic effects increased with escalation of the drug dose. Survival of fetuses and offspring was reduced. Ribavirin caused embryo lethality in the rabbit at daily oral dose levels as low as 1 mg/kg. No teratogenic effects were evident in the rabbit and rat administered daily oral doses of 0.1 and 0.3 mg/kg, respectively with estimated human equivalent doses of 0.01 and 0.04 mg/kg, based on body surface area adjustment (see Pharmacokinetics). These doses are considered to define the "No Observable Teratogenic Effects Level" (NOTEL) for ribavirin in the rabbit and rat.
Following oral administration of ribavirin in the pregnant rat (1.0 mg/kg) and rabbit (0.3 mg/kg), mean plasma levels of drug ranged from 0.104.20 µM[0.024-0.049 u/mL] at 1 hour after dosing, to undetectable levels at 24 hours. At 1 hour following the administration of 0.3 or 0.1 mg/kg in the rat and rabbit (NOTEL), respectively, mean plasma levels of drug in both species were near or below the limit of detection (0.05 µM; see Pharmacokinetics).
Although clinical studies have not been performed, Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) may cause fetal harm in humans. As noted previously, ribavirin is concentrated in red blood cells and persists for the life of the cell. Thus the terminal half-life for the systemic elimination of ribavirin is essentially that of the half-life of circulating erythrocytes. The minimum interval following exposure to Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) before pregnancy may be safely initiated is unknown (see CONTRAINDICATIONS, WARNINGS, and Information for Health Care Personnel).
Nursing MothersVero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) has been shown to be toxic to lactating animals and their offspring. It is not known if Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) is excreted in human milk.
Information for Health Care PersonnelHealth care workers directly providing care to patients receiving aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin should be aware that ribavirin has been shown to be teratogenic in all animal species in which adequate studies have been conducted (rodents and rabbits). Although no reports of teratogenesis in offspring of mothers who were exposed to aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) during pregnancy have been confirmed, no controlled studies have been conducted in pregnant women. Studies of environmental exposure in treatment settings have shown that the drug can disperse into the immediate bedside area during routine patient care activities with highest ambient levels closest to the patient and extremely low levels outside of the immediate bedside area. Adverse reactions resulting from actual occupational exposure in adults are described below (see Adverse Events in Health Care Workers). Some studies have documented ambient drug concentrations at the bedside that could potentially lead to systemic exposures above those considered safe for exposure during pregnancy (1/1000 of the NOTEL dose in the most sensitive animal species).7,8,9
A1992 study conducted by the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) demonstrated measurable urine levels of ribavirin in health care workers exposed to aerosol in the course of direct patient care.7 Levels were lowest in workers caring for infants receiving aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) with mechanical ventilation and highest in those caring for patients being administered the drug via an oxygen tent or hood. This study employed a more sensitive assay to evaluate ribavirin levels in urine than was available for several previous studies of environmental exposure that failed to detect measurable ribavirin levels in exposed workers. Creatinine adjusted urine levels in the NIOSH study ranged from less than 0.001 to 0.140 µM of ribavirin per gram of creatinine in exposed workers. However, the relationship between urinary ribavirin levels in exposed workers, plasma levels in animal studies, and the specific risk of teratogenesis in exposed pregnant women is unknown.
It is good practice to avoid unnecessary occupational exposure to chemicals wherever possible. Hospitals are encouraged to conduct training programs to minimize potential occupational exposure to Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin). Health care workers who are pregnant should consider avoiding direct care of patients receiving aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin). If close patient contact cannot be avoided, precautions to limit exposure should be taken. These include administration of Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) in negative pressure rooms; adequate room ventilation (at least six air exchanges per hour); the use of Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) aerosol scavenging devices; turning off the SPAG-2 device for 5 to 10 minutes prior to prolonged patient contact; and wearing appropriately fitted respirator masks. Surgical masks do not provide adequate filtration of Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) particles. Further information is available from NIOSH's Hazard Evaluation and Technical Assistance Branch and additional recommendations have been published in an Aerosol Consensus Statement by the American Respiratory Care Foundation and the American Association for Respiratory Care10
REFERENCES
7. Decker, John, Shultz, Ruth A., Health Hazaid Evaluation Report: Florida Hospital, Orlando, Florida. Cincinnati OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for NIOSH Report No. HETA 91 -104-2229.*
8. Barnes, D.J. and Doursew, M. Reference dose: Description and use in health risk assessments. Regul Tox. and Pharm. Vol. 8; p. 471-486, 1988.
9. Federal Register Vol. 53 No. 126 Thurs. June 30,1988 p. 2483424847.
10. American Association for Respiratory Care [1991]. Aerosol Consensus Statement-1991. Respiratory Care 36(9): 916-921.
Vero-Ribavirin has no or negligible influence on the ability to drive and use machines; however, other medicinal products used in combination may have an effect. Thus, patients who develop fatigue, somnolence, or confusion during treatment must be cautioned to avoid driving or operating machinery.
Treatment should be initiated, and monitored, by a physician experienced in the management of chronic hepatitis C.
Posology
Please refer also to the corresponding Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC) of medicinal products used in combination with Vero-Ribavirin for additional prescribing information particular to that product and for further dosage recommendations on co-administration with Vero-Ribavirin.
Vero-Ribavirin capsules are to be administered orally each day in two divided doses (morning and evening) with food.
Adults
The recommended dose and duration of Vero-Ribavirin depends on patient's weight and on the medicinal product that is used in combination. Please refer to the corresponding SmPC of medicinal products used in combination with Vero-Ribavirin
In the cases in which no specific dose recommendation is made, the following dose should be used: Patient weight: < 75 kg =1,000 mg and > 75 kg = 1,200 mg.
Paediatric population
No data are available in children below 3 years of age.
Note: For patients who weigh < 47 kg, or are unable to swallow capsules, please refer to the SmPC for Vero-Ribavirin 40 mg/mL oral solution.
Dosing of Vero-Ribavirin for children and adolescent patients is determined by the patient body weight. For example, the body weight dosing used in conjunction with interferon alfa-2b is shown in Table 1. Please refer to the corresponding SmPC of medicinal products used in combination with Vero-Ribavirin as some combination regimens do not adhere to the Vero-Ribavirin dosing guidance provided in Table 1.
| Table 1. Vero-Ribavirin dose based on body weight when used in combination with interferon alfa-2b in paediatric patients | ||
| Patient weight (kg) | Daily Vero-Ribavirin dose | Number of 200 mg capsules |
| 47-49 | 600 mg | 3 capsules a |
| 50 - 65 | 800 mg | 4 capsules b |
| > 65 | Refer to adult dose recommendations | |
a: 1 morning, 2 evening
b: 2 morning, 2 evening
Dose modification for adverse reactions
Dose modification for adults
Dose reduction of Vero-Ribavirin depends on the initial Vero-Ribavirin posology which depends on the medicinal product that is used in combination with Vero-Ribavirin.
If a patient has a serious adverse reaction potentially related to Vero-Ribavirin, the Vero-Ribavirin dose should be modified or discontinued, if appropriate, until the adverse reaction abates or decreases in severity.
Table 2 provides guidelines for dose modifications and discontinuation based on the patient's haemoglobin concentration, cardiac status and indirect bilirubin concentration.
| Table 2 Management of Adverse Reactions | ||
| Laboratory values | Reduce Vero-Ribavirin dose* if: | Discontinue Vero-Ribavirin if: |
| Haemoglobin in patients with No Cardiac Disease | < 10 g/dL | < 8.5 g/dL |
| Haemoglobin: Patients with History of Stable Cardiac Disease | > 2 g/dL decrease in haemoglobin during any 4 week period during treatment (permanent dose reduction) | < 12 g/dL despite 4 weeks at reduced dose |
| Bilirubin - Indirect | > 5 mg/dL | > 4 mg/dL (adults) |
* For patients receiving a 1,000 mg (< 75 kg) or 1,200 mg (> 75 kg) dose, Vero-Ribavirin dose should be reduced to 600 mg/day (administered as one 200 mg capsule in the morning and two 200 mg capsules in the evening). If the abnormality is reversed, Vero-Ribavirin may be restarted at 600 mg daily, and further increased to 800 mg daily at the discretion of the treating physician. However, a return to higher doses is not recommended.
For patients receiving a 800 mg (< 65 kg)-1,000 mg (65-80 kg)-1,200 mg (81-105 kg) or 1,400 mg (> 105 kg) dose, 1st dose reduction of Vero-Ribavirin is by 200 mg/day (except in patients receiving the 1,400 mg, dose reduction should be by 400 mg/day). If needed, 2nd dose reduction of Vero-Ribavirin is by an additional 200 mg/day. Patients whose dose of Vero-Ribavirin is reduced to 600 mg daily receive one 200 mg capsule in the morning and two 200 mg capsules in the evening.
In case of serious adverse reaction potentially related to medicinal products used in combination with Vero-Ribavirin, refer to the corresponding SmPC of these medicinal products as some combination regimens do not adhere to the Vero-Ribavirin dose modification and/or discontinuation guidelines as described in Table 2.
Dose modification for paediatric patients
Dose reduction in paediatric patients without cardiac disease follows the same guidelines as adult patients without cardiac disease regarding haemoglobin levels (Table 2).
There are no data for paediatric patients with cardiac disease.
Table 3 provides guidelines for discontinuation based on the patient's indirect bilirubin concentration.
| Table 3 Management of Adverse Reactions | |
| Laboratory values | Discontinue Vero-Ribavirin if: |
| Bilirubin - Indirect | > 5 mg/dL (for > 4 weeks) (children and adolescents treated with interferon alfa-2b) |
Special populations
Elderly (> 65 years of age)
There does not appear to be a significant age-related effect on the pharmacokinetics of Vero-Ribavirin. However, as in younger patients, renal function must be determined prior to administration of Vero-Ribavirin.
Paediatric patients (children 3 years of age and older and adolescents)
Vero-Ribavirin may be used in combination with interferon alfa-2b. The selection of Vero-Ribavirin formulation is based on individual characteristics of the patient.
The safety and efficacy of Vero-Ribavirin used together with direct-acting-anti-virals in these patients has not been established. No data are available.
Please refer to the corresponding SmPC of medicinal products used in combination with Vero-Ribavirin for further dosage recommendations on co-administration.
Renal impairment
The pharmacokinetics of Vero-Ribavirin are altered in patients with renal dysfunction due to reduction of apparent creatinine clearance in these patients. Therefore, it is recommended that renal function be evaluated in all patients prior to initiation of Vero-Ribavirin. Adult patients with moderate renal impairment (creatinine clearance of 30-50 mL/minute) should be administered alternating daily doses of 200 mg and 400 mg. Adult patients with severe renal impairment (creatinine clearance of < 30 mL/minute) and patients with End Stage Renal Disease (ESRD) or on haemodialysis should be administered Vero-Ribavirin 200 mg/day. Table 4 provides guidelines for dose modification for patients with renal dysfunction. Patients with impaired renal function should be more carefully monitored with respect to the development of anaemia. No data are available regarding dose modification for paediatric patients with renal impairment.
| Table 4 Dosage Modification for Renal Impairment in Adult Patients | |
| Creatinine Clearance | Vero-Ribavirin Dose (daily) |
| 30 to 50 mL/min | Alternating doses, 200 mg and 400 mg every other day |
| Less than 30 mL/min | 200 mg daily |
| Haemodialysis (ESRD) | 200 mg daily |
Hepatic impairment: No pharmacokinetic interaction appears between Vero-Ribavirin and hepatic function. For use in patients with decompensated cirrhosis, see the corresponding SmPC of the medicinal products used in combination with Vero-Ribavirin.
Method of administration
Vero-Ribavirin should be administered orally with food.
BEFORE USE, READ THOROUGHLY THE VALEANT SMALL PARTICLE AEROSOL GENERATOR SPAG-2 OPERATOR'S MANUAL FOR SMALL PARTICLE AEROSOL GENERATOR OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS. AEROSOLIZED Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) SHOULD NOT BE ADMINISTERED WITH ANY OTHER AEROSOL GENERATING DEVICE.
The recommended treatment regimen is 20 mg/mL Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) as the starting solution in the drug reservoir of the SPAG-2 unit, with continuous aerosol administration for 12-18 hours per day for 3 to 7 days. Using the recommended drug concentration of 20 mg/mL the average aerosol concentration for a 12 hour delivery period would be 190 micrograms/liter of air. Aerosolized Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) should not be administered in a mixture for combined aerosolization or simultaneously with other aerosolized medications.
Non-mechanically ventilated infantsVero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) should be delivered to an infant oxygen hood from the
SPAG-2 aerosol generator. Administration by face mask or oxygen tent may be necessary If a hood cannot be employed (see SPAG-2 manual). However, the volume and condensation area are larger in a tent and this may alter delivery dynamics of the drug.
Mechanically Ventilated InfantsThe recommended dose and administration schedule for infants who require mechanical ventilation is the same as for those who do not. Either a pressure or volume cycle ventilator may be used in conjunction with the SPAG-2. In either case, patients should have their endotracheal tubes suctioned every 1-2 hours, and their pulmonary pressures monitored frequently (every 2-4 hours). For both pressure and volume ventilators, heated wire connective tubing and bacteria filters in series in the expiratory limb of the system (which must be changed frequently, i.e., every 4 hours) must be used to minimize the risk of Vero-Ribavirin (ribavirin) precipitation in the system and the subsequent risk of ventilator dysfunction. Water column pressure release valves should be used in the ventilator circuit for pressure cycled ventilators, and may be utilized with volume cycled ventilators (SEE SPAG-2 MANUAL FOR DETAILED INSTRUCTIONS).
Method of PreparationVero-Ribavirin brand of ribavirin is supplied as 6 grams of lyophilized powder per 100 mL vial for aerosol administration only. By sterile technique, reconstitute drug with a minimum of 75 mL of sterile USP water for Infection or Inhalation in the original 100 mL glass vial. Shake well. Transfer to the clean, sterilized 500 mL SPAG-2 reservoir and further dilute to a final volume of 300 mL with Sterile Water for Injection, USP, or Inhalation. The final concentration should be 20 mg/mL. Important: This water should NOT have had any anti microbial agent or other substance added. The solution should be inspected visually for particulate matter and discoloration prior to administration. Solutions that have been placed in the SPAG-2 unit should be discarded at least every 24 hours and when the liquid level is low before adding newly reconstituted solution.
No special requirements
